Unit 3 Flashcards
(380 cards)
1
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Module 19: The Brain part 1
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Cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, and brainstem
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Cerebrum
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Largest part of the brain. MEAT.
**responsible for coordinating movement, regulating temperature, and enabling speech, judgment, and problem-solving
(divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum)
3
Q
Cerebral cortex (Cerebrum)
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Outer layer of the cerebrum (GREY MATTER). Surface of the brain responsible for higher functions.
Gyri and Sulci increase SA for more processing.
4
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Cerebral hemispheres (Cerebrum)
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Right/Left separated by MEDIAN LONGITUDINAL FISSURE
Right hemisphere: Visuospatial processes, imagination, music, and artistic skills
Left hemisphere: Analytical thinking, math skills. LANGUAGE centers too.
5
Q
Hemispheric lateralization (Cerebrum)
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Concept that the right and left hemispheres are anatomically identical but functionally different
-Left=logic and language
-Right=art and visuospatial
6
Q
Sulci (Cerebrum)
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Sulci serve as the GROOVES or “VALLEYS” between gyri
**communication pathways
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Gyri (Cerebrum)
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Gyri are primarily the brain’s VISIBLE, RAISED RIDGES and house the majority of neuron cell bodies.
**processing and storage sites
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Median longitudinal fissure (Cerebrum)
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Separates the right (art) / left (logic/language) hemispheres of brain
9
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Central sulcus (Cerebrum)
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Divides the frontal and parietal lobe
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Lateral Sulcus (sylvian fissure) (Cerebrum)
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DIVIDES TEMPORAL LOBE from frontal and parietal lobes
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Parieto-occipital sulcus (Cerebrum)
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Separates parietal and occipital lobe
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Central white matter (Cerebrum)
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Deeper part of cerebrum. Axons (myelinated).
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Commissure (Central white matter)
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Bundles of nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemispheres, allowing the two sides to work together.
**Anterior commissure, posterior commissure, corpus callosum
14
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Corpus callosum (Commissure)
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The largest commissure connecting right and left hemispheres allowing communication across coordinating sides.
15
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Anterior commissure
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Connects the olfactory bulbs, amygdaloid nuclei, and the medial and inferior temporal lobes. It also plays a key role in pain sensation, the sense of smell, memory, emotion, speech, and hearing.
16
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Posterior Commissure
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Connects areas in the occipital lobes (pupillary response and eye movement control)
-Also a major part of the epithalamus and forms one of the stalks that attach the pineal body to the posterior wall of the third ventricle
**It is important in language processing and connects the language processing centers of both cerebral hemispheres
17
Q
Association Fibers (Central white matter)
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White matter that connects different regions within the same cerebral hemisphere, allowing for communication between various cortical areas
18
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Projection fibers (Central white matter)
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Projection fibers connect the cerebral cortex to lower brain structures like the brainstem and spinal cord, essentially sending signals from the cortex to the rest of the body and receiving sensory information back up
19
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Brodmann’s areas (Cerebrum)
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A system of classification done by Brodmann that resulted in anatomical distinctions within the cortex
20
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Motor Areas (Cerebrum)
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Execute the motor response to the sensory information
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Sensory areas (Cerebrum)
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Process incoming sensory information
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Multimodal association areas (Cerebrum)
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Integration region that processes different types of sensory input and utilizes memories and emotions to make a “plan” for how to respond
23
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Insula (Cerebrum)
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Deep region of the lateral sulcus (separates temporal and frontal/parietal lobes) important in
-emotional processing
-interoception
-risk/decision making
-pain perception
ESSENTIALLY INTEGRATES SENSORY AND EMOTIONAL INFORMATION.
24
Q
Occipital lobe (Cerebrum)
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VISUAL Processing
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Frontal lobe (Cerebrum)
Motor activity. Higher order thinking. Personality.
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Prefrontal Cortex (Frontal lobe)
Anterior portion of frontal lobe.
Higher cognitive functions: planning, making decisions, judgement, multitasking, etc.
**executive functions
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Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Frontal lobe)
Task switching and task-set reconfiguration, prevention of interference, inhibition, planning, and working memory
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Executive functions
Higher cognitive functions: planning, making decisions, judgement, multitasking, etc.
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Orbitofrontal cortex (Frontal lobe)
**sits just above orbits (eyes)
important in processing reward signals, evaluating the value of stimuli, and MAKING DECISIONS based on expected outcomes.
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Anterior cingulate cortex (Frontal lobe)
Part of the limbic system and is responsible for:
1. regulation of attention and emotion
2. inhibitory control
3. error monitoring
4. motivation
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Precentral gyrus (Frontal lobe)
Houses the PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX (just anterior to central sulcus)
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primary motor cortex (Frontal lobe)
Located in the precentral gyrus, innervates skeletal muscles.
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Motor homunculus (motor cortex)
Topographical map of body parts that exists of the primary motor cortex. Each region is responsible for the movement of it's corresponding part.
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Supplementary & premotor areas (Frontal lobe)
Supplementary motor areas: Responsible for PLANNING AND COORDINATING MOVEMENT. Also manages sequential movements --learned movements
Premotor cortex: Controls movements of the core muscles to MAINTAIN POSTURE during movement.
**Most active leading up to movement!!!
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Broca's areas (Frontal lobe)
Controls movements of muscles important in SPEECH PRODUCTION
LEFT SIDE, lateral aspect of inferior frontal lobe (Left inferior frontal gyrus)
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Broca's aphasia
Incoherent speaking. But can understand speech.
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Parietal lobe (Cerebrum)
Sensory processing (largely somatosensation)
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Postcentral gyrus (Temporal Lobe)
Houses primary somatosensory cortex... which is responsible for the initial processing of all tactile senses
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Primary somatosensory cortex (Temporal Lobe)
Initial processing off all tactile senses (touch, pressure, tickle, pain, itch, and vibration)
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Somatosensory homunculus
The iconic weird looking visual map of which region of the cortex is responsible for which region's somatosensation.
**The fine touch sensation has larger representation on the map. Vs. less sensitive areas = less space on map
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Somatosensory association areas (Temporal Lobe)
Posterior regions of the parietal lobe that integrate other senses (such as visual stimuli)
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Wernicke's area (Temporal lobe)
Left posterior superior temporal gyri.
Responsible for language comprehension.
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Wernicke's aphasia
Can produce fluent speech, but it lacks meaning.
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Temporal lobe (Cerebrum)
Near ears. Smell, taste, SOUND. short term memory and speech production/interpretation.
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Superior, middle, inferior gyri (of temporal lobe) (Temporal Lobe)
The 3 parallel horizontal gyri that compose the temporal lobe
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Hippocampus (Temporal Lobe)
Storage of new EPISODIC memories into long term memory.
Medial temporal lobe
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Amygdala (Temporal Lobe)
Processing emotions. Ties emotions to sensations... especially FEAR!
...can generate a fear response through memory
Medial temporal lobe
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Limbic System (Cerebrum)
Collection of structures involved in emotion, memory, and behavior.
-includes amygdala and hippocampus
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Basal nuclei (Cerebrum)
Set of nuclei DEEP IN THE CEREBRUM involved in controlling aspects of MOVEMENTS, including the impulse to move.
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Caudate (Basal nuclei)
LONG nucleus following C-shaped of cerebrum from the frontal lobe through parietal and occipital lobe and into the temporal lobe.
-Planning movement
-decision-making (movement)
-learning
-initiation of movement
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Putamen (Basal nuclei)
-motor control (execution of learned movements)
-receives significant input from the motor cortex
Outer "egg- yolk" portion of basal ganglia
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Globus Pallidus (Basal nuclei)
Inside central node of putamen.
-Primary output structure of the basal ganglia, sending inhibitory signals to the thalamus to REGULATE MOVEMENT and maintain muscle tone.
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Rostral (brain)
Toward forehead
ex. frontal lobe is rostral to occipital lobe.
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Caudal (brain)
Toward back/occipital lobe.
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Ventral (brain)
Toward the bottom of the brain... closer to the brainstem.
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Dorsal (brain)
Towards the top of the head.
**important to note that these are important because the head shifts directional terms compared to when moving down the brainstem.
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Telencephalon
Largest part of the brain, forming the CEREBRUM
-responsible for higher functions like learning, memory, language, and complex motor control
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Diencephalon
Consists of every structure with "THALAMUS" in the name.
-Thalamus (sensory relay center), hypothalamus (regulates homeostasis like body temp & hunger), sub thalamus, and epithalamus.
**Situated below the telencephalon
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Mesencephalon
AKA midbrain
-- VISUAL and AUDITORY processing: eye movement control, and some motor functions
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Metencephalon
Located in the hindbrain
--PONS & CEREBELLUM, (crucial for coordination, balance, and posture)
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Myelencephalon
The most posterior part of the brain, forms MEDULLA OBLONGOTA
--responsible for vital functions like breathing and heart rate regulation!!
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Diencephalon --Thalamus
Relays information from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord OR brainstem.
Does NOT simply pass information on, but also PROCESSES IT. ex. what visual info is important/ needs attention.
--left and right thalamus form the walls of the third ventricle.
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Diencephalon --Hypothalamus
Executive region in charge of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM, and the endocrine system through its REGULATION OF THE PITUITARY GLAND
produces and secretes hormones. Other portions of hypothalamus are important in memory and emotion (limbic system)
**Hypothalamus produces hormones, for storage and release from pituitary gland (Hypothalamus secretes either releasing hormone or inhibiting hormone to act on anterior pituitary gland)
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What classifies as forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain?
Forebrain: Telencephalon (cerebrum) and Diencephalon
Midbrain: Mesencephalon
Hindbrain: Metencephalon and Myelencephalon
**essentially works top-down
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Command Center of endocrine system = ?
Hypothalamus + pituitary complex
**Hypothalamus produces releasing hormones (promote secretion from anterior pituitary) and inhibiting hormones (inhibit secretion)
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Pituitary gland:
Anterior pituitary / adeno-hypophysis
Glandular tissue
Anterior pituitary is a true endocrine gland that synthesizes its own hormones,
while the posterior pituitary serves more as a storage and release site for hypothalamic hormones (ADH and Oxytocin).
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Pituitary gland:
Posterior pituitary/ neurohypophysis
Neural tissue
does not produce its own hormones, but rather stores and releases those produced by hypothalamus: the posterior pituitary serves more as a storage and release site for hypothalamic hormones (ADH and Oxytocin).
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Pituitary gland:
Infundibulum
"stalk" that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland
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Cerebellum
"Little brain".
Compares command information from cerebrum with sensory feedback from periphery through the spinal cord. And makes adjustment commands for coordinated movement
MASTER COORDINATOR
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Cerebellar peduncles
-superior
-middle
-inferior
Contain white matter pathways traveling to or from the cerebellum. Directly connects cerebellum to parts of the brainstem
SCP = projects into midbrain
MCP= projects into ventral surface of pons
ICP= arises from medulla
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Folia (Cerebellum)
The name of the feather/leaf-like folds of the cerebellum (instead of sulci and gyri)
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Anterior lobe (Rostral lobe of Cerebellum)
Regulating posture and coordinating limb movements
--recieves A LOT of sensory input from spinal cord, so it deals highly with proximal muscles... which deal with posture and balance
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Posterior lobe (Cerebellum)
**More recent evolutionarily...
Plays a major role in coordinating voluntary, precise movements.
Extensive input from the cerebral cortex, allows it to integrate complex sensory information and contribute to skilled, fine motor tasks (ex. writing or playing an instrument)
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Primary fissure (Cerebellum)
Separates the anterior and posterior lobe of the cerebellum.
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Vermis (Cerebellum)
Midline portion of the cerebellum BETWEEN the two cerebellar hemispheres.
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Flocculonodular lobes (Cerebellum)
Smaller, most anterior lobe of cerebellum
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Brainstem
Midbrain superiorly, pons in the middle, and medulla oblongata inferiorly.
RESPONSIBLE FOR UNCONSCIOUS FUNCTIONS!
**also origin for 10 or the 12 cranial nerves
***major ascending and descending pathways between spinal cord and cerebrum pass through the brain stem .
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Reticular formation (Brainstem)
A diffuse region of gray matter throughout the brain stem...
related to sleep and wakefulness such as general brain activity and attention
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Midbrain (Brainstem)
Small region between the thalamus and the pons.
The cerebellar peduncles connect the midbrain to the cerebellum.
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Tectum (Midbrain --brainstem)
-Corppora quadrigemina (combined name for 4 bumps of the tectum)
-Superior colliculi
-Inferior colliculi
Inferior colliculus: inferior pair of these enlargements and is important for AUDITORY REFLEXES
Superior colliculus: superior pair of these enlargements and is important for VISUAL REFLEXES
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Substantia nigra (Midbrain --brainstem)
Contributes to motor control and modulation...
part of a neural circuit with the basal ganglia
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Red nucleus (Midbrain --brainstem)
Involved in motor regulation and muscle tone through connection with other parts of the brain.
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Cerebral peduncles (Midbrain --brainstem)
Connects the brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla) to the cerebellum.
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Pons (Brainstem)
**The thick belly attached to the cerebellum. works closely with medulla to regulate unconscious autonomic processes.
Main connection between cerebellum and brain stem (Middle Cerebellar Peduncle)
Links brain to spinal cord. Your pons handles unconscious processes (from your sleeping to your breathing)
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Pontine respiratory center
Regulates unconscious breathing (in coordination with medulla)
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Medulla (Brainstem)
Most inferior portion of brainstem. Significant amount of white matter (continuous with white matter of spinal cord)
--VITAL AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS: Primarily regulates breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
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Pyramids (Medulla)
Two vertical ridges on the anterior aspect of the medulla formed by the axons of the corticospinal tract
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Pyramidal decussation (Medulla)
Area on the inferior aspect of the anterior medulla where the corticospinal tract fibers CROSS
(appears as a small area where the groove between the two pyramids briefly disappears)
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Cardiovascular center (Medulla)
Controls smooth and cardiac muscle of the cardiovascular system through autonomic connections
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Medullary respiratory center (Medulla)
Communicates with the respiratory center of the pons to regulate breathing.
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Generalization about Sulci and Gyri:
Gyri = Sites of Information Processing and High-Level Functioning:
(execute complex functions like memory, language, motor control, and sensory perception)
Sulci = Sulci – Functional Separation and Communication Pathways:
Sulci create boundaries between brain regions. Allows specialized regions to communicate while remaining distinct from e/o. Also provide pathway for blood vessels and organize neural networks.
**Deeper sulci often mark the boundaries between lobes and significant functional areas
(e.g., the central sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes, marking a clear divide between motor and sensory processing areas).
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Module 20: Brain pt 2
Blood supply, meninges, ventricles, and CSF
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Vertebral arteries
(one route for blood to get to brain)
Branch off the subclavian arteries on each side... pass through neck region by transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae.
Enter the cranium through the foramen magnum of the occipital bone.
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Internal carotid arteries
(another route for blood to get to brain)
Branch from the common carotid arteries and enter the cranium through the carotid canal in the temporal lobe
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Anterior cerebral arteries
Supplies blood to the anterior, medial, and very superior portions of the FRONTAL LOBE (rostral portion of frontal lobe)
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Middle cerebral arteries
Supplies blood to the POSTERIOR FRONTAL LOBE and most of TEMPORAL AND PARIETAL LOBES
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Posterior cerebral arteries
Supply OCCIPITAL LOBE and inferior aspect of POSTERIOR TEMPORAL lobe with blood.
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Circle of Willis
Confluence of arteries that can maintain perfusion of the brain even if narrowing or a blockage limits flow through one part.
VERY IMPORTANT THIS ORGAN RECEIVES UNINTERRUPTED BLOOD SUPPLY
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Anterior communicating artery
Connects anterior cerebral arteries for balanced blood flow
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Posterior communicating artery
Provides alternative blood flow method to occipital lobe in case of blockage.
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Internal jugular vein
Main vein that drains blood from the brain, head, and neck back toward the heart
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Meninges
Series of 3 connective tissue membranes which PROTECT the BRAIN.
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1: Dura mater (Meninges)
1st protective layer =
THICK outer covering of the brain. Dense fibrous connective tissue.
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1a) Periosteal layer
1b) Meningeal layer
Periosteal layer:
Outer 1/2 of dura mater-
Directly attached to BONE of cranium
Meningeal layer:
Inner 1/2 of dura mater -
Adjacent to the middle layer of the meninges. Sometimes branches to form dural reflections.
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Epidural space (Dura mater -Meninges)
Exists between the skull and the dura mater
Allows veins to run through here.
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Subdural space
Found between the dura mater and arachnoid mater
--thin lining
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Dural reflections
(formed from meningeal layer)
-Falx cerebri
-Tentorium cerebelli
-Falx cerebelli
Infoldings of the dura that fit into LARGE crevasses of the brain.
**Part of the thick cap that follows the MAJOR BRAIN FOLDS --Protects/divides these portions.
FALX CEREBRI located within the median longitudinal fissure (beneath this fissure is the corpus callosum)
FALX CEREBELLI: located between the right and left hemispheres of the CEREBELLUM
TENTORIUM CEREBELLI: forms a shelf-like structure between the OCCIPITAL LOBES of the cerebrum and CEREBELLUM
**1 for cerebrum, 2 for cerebellum.
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Dural venous sinuses (Dura mater -Meninges)
-superior sagittal sinus
-inferior sagittal sinus
-transverse sinuses
-straight sinus
-sigmoid sinus
Ensure proper drainage of blood and CSF from brain.
Superior Sagittal Sinus: collects blood from the superficial brain structures
Inferior Sagittal Sinus: collects blood from deep brain structures
Straight Sinus: gathers blood from the deep parts of the brain
Transverse Sinuses: direct blood laterally from the confluence
Sigmoid Sinus: channels blood out of the skull via the internal jugular veins.
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2. Arachnoid mater
2nd layer of meninges. Thin, middle layer of meninges.
Just below the arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and layered with arachnoid trabeculae (mesh-like)
**subarachnoid space allows CSF to create a fluid cushion for the brain
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Arachnoid trabeculae
Located in the subarachnoid space is a thin, filamentous mesh (called the arachnoid trabeculae) which looks like a spider web, giving this layer its name
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Arachnoid granulations
Location of arachnoid in dural sinuses where CSF is filtered and drained back into blood stream.
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Subarachnoid space
Space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater.
Houses arachnoid trabeculae and CSF.
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3. Pia mater
Innermost/last meninge layer.
Very thin inner layer directly ATTACHED to the surface of the BRAIN and spinal cord
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Ventricles
Open spaces within the brain where CSF circulates.
CSF is produced in ventricles by the filtering of blood through the choroid plexus.
**There are 4 ventricles within the brain
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1& 2: Lateral ventricles
Deep within each hemisphere.
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Septum pellucidum
Thin two-layered membrane that SEPARATES the two lateral ventricles deep within the brain.
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Interventricular foramen (of Monro)
Connects the 2 lateral ventricles with the third ventricle
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Third ventricle (ventricles)
Space between the left and right diencephalon (all structures with "thalamus")... opens to the cerebral aqueduct (passes through the midbrain)
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Fourth ventricle (ventricles)
The space between the cerebellum and the pons and the upper medulla
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Cerebral aqueduct (ventricles)
Passes through the midbrain
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Median aperture
connect to subarachnoid space so CSF can leave the ventricles
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Lateral aperatures
connect to subarachnoid space so CSF can leave the ventricles
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Cerebrospinal fluid
Circulates throughout and around the CNS providing cushioning for brain and regulating the environment around the brain.
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Ependymal Cells
Surround blood-capillaries in the choroid plexus and filter the blood to make CSF
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Choroid plexus
Structure that is responsible for filtering blood into CSF in the ventricles
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Order of Cerebrospinal Fluid through the body:
Formed in Choroid plexuses (within all 4 ventricles).
From the lateral ventricles, the CSF flows into the THIRD VENTRICLE (where more CSF is produced)
then through cerebral aqueduct into the FOURTH VENTRICLE (even more CSF is produced)
**a very small amount of CSF is filtered at any one of the plexuses, but it is continuously made and pulses through the ventricular system... and moves into the subarachnoid space through the median and lateral apertures
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Blood-brain barrier
A protective barrier between the bloodstream and the brain, preventing harmful substances like toxins and pathogens from entering the CNS while allowing essential nutrients to reach the brain tissue
Maintains a stable environment for optimal brain function
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Module 21: The visual system
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Orbit
Pockets in the skull that hold the eyes.
Protect and anchor soft tissue of the eyes
Roof: Frontal bone
Lateral wall: Zygomatic bone
Floor: Maxillary bone and palatine bone
Medial wall: Lacrimal bone and ethmoid bone
Posterior wall: Sphenoid bone
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Fibrous layer of eye
Fibrous tunic = outermost layer of the eye
(made up of sclera and cornea)
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Cornea
Most anterior portion of the eye. Clear and allows light to enter the eye.
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM.
AVASCULAR
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Sclera
White portion of the eye. Majority of the surface of the eye (largely not visible).
Sight of attachment for extra ocular muscles.
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Vascular layer
Middle layer of eye.
1-Choroid
2-Ciliary body
3-Iris
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1-Choroid
Highly vascular connective tissue. EXTENSIVE CAPILLARY NETWORK (delivers nutrients to retina)
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2- Iris
-sphincter pupillae
-dilator pupillae
Contains pigmented cells giving us our eye color.
sphincter pupillae: reduces diameter of pupil (contracts)
dilator pupillae: increases diameter of pupil (dilation)
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3- Pupil
Hole at the center of the eye that allows light to enter.
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Ciliary body
Consists of ciliary muscles and ciliary processes.
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Ciliary muscle
Muscular ring projecting into the eye. Pulls on lens when tension is formed from contraction
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Ciliary processes
Suspend lens in place, and are attached to lens by suspensory ligaments and zone fibers which are what pull on the lens itself due to contraction
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Suspensory ligaments (zone fibers)
Hold lens in place (suspend it)
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Lens
Structure that adjusts how much light will be focused on the back of the eye
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Retina (inner layer)
Innermost layer of the eye, which contains the NERVOUS TISSUE responsible for photoreceptor and the initial processing of visual stimuli
2 sublayers
-Pigmented layer
-Neural layer
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1. Pigmented layer (Retina)
Absorbs light and triggers activity in the photoreceptors
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2. Neural layer (Retina)
Contains:
-photoreceptors
-supporting cells and neurons
...that perform the first steps in visual processing and integrating visual information
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Photoreceptor cells (Retina)
Specialized cells that are stimulated by different types of light
-rods and cones
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Rods
-vision in dim light
-black and white color
-concentrated in periphery of vision
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Cones
-color vision
-concentrated in center of retina
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BIPOLAR cells (Retina)
SHORT Nerve cells in the retina of the eye that act as intermediaries, transferring visual information directly from photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) to ganglion cells,
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Retinal GANGLION cells (Retina)
LONG cells lying at innermost layer of retina that eventually form optic nerve
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Optic disc (Retina)
Location where axons of retinal ganglion cells collect (exit eye at optic nerve)
Optic disc = blind spot
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Fovea centralis (Retina)
Location where vision acuity is HIGHEST (Sharp Vision!!)
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Macula (Retina)
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Nasal retina (Retina)
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Temporal retina (Retina)
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Anterior cavity
-aqueous humor
-anterior chamber
-posterior chamber
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Posterior cavity
-vitreous humor
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Extrinsic eye muscles:
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Abducens Nerve (CN VI)
-Lateral rectus
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Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
-Medial rectus
-Inferior rectus
-Superior rectus
-Inferior oblique
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Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
-superior oblique
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Common tendinous ring
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Trochlea
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Orbit
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Eyebrows
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Eyelashes
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Eyelids
-Palpebral fissure
-Medial angle
-Lateral angle
-Tarsal glands
-Tarsal Plates
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Conjunctiva
-Palpebral conjunctiva
-Bulbar conjunctiva
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Lacrimal apparatus
-Lacrimal fluid (tears)
-Lacrimal puncta
-Lacrimal canaliculus
-Lacrimal sac
-Nasolacrimal duct
Lacrimal fluid gives nourishment to the cornea (avascular)
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Optic nerve (CN II)
Retinal ganglion cells of the same eye merge together and leave the eye via the optic nerve
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Optic Chiasm
Where the axons originating from the nasal retina decussate
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Optic Tract
The axons of the visual system
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1. Lateral geniculate ganglion
90% of the optic tract fibers travel to the lateral geniculate ganglion of the thalamus
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Optic radiations
The pathway that axons from the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus take to reach the primary visual cortex of the cerebrum (in the occipital lobe)
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2a. Edinger-Wesphal nucleus
Located in midbrain. Involved in pupillary reflex and accommodation of the lens
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2b. Superior colliculus
Located in midbrain. Involved in visual reflexes.
(ex. when we see something in our periphery the sup. col. turns our head so we can focus)
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2c. Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Located in Hypothalamus, this nucleus senses the presence of absent light and plays a role in our sleep-wake cycle.
Ex. when it's dark outside the sup. nucleus signals to secrete melanin to make us sleepy
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Primary visual cortex (BA 17)
-Calcarine fissure
Located in Occipital lobe. The 1st cortical area that processes visual information
178
Visual association areas (mostly V2 and V3)
Cortical regions that surround the primary visual cortex that are dedicated to processing visual information
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Module 22: Hearing and Vestibulation
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Ear anatomy: External ear
-auricle
-external auditory meatus
-tympanic membrane
**collects sound and directs it to deeper structures of the ear. ONLY involved in hearing
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Auricle
Large, fleshy structure on lateral aspect of head.
aka pinna.
amplifies sound (sound bounces off of the ridges to give clues as to direction of sound)
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External acoustic meatus
Auditory canal
**cartilage and temporal bone
183
Tympanic membrane
Eardrum
**vibrates in response to sound waves
separates external ear from middle ear
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Cerumen
185
Middle ear:
Contains air-filled tympanic cavity. ONLY involved in sensation of hearing.
-auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
-oval window (superior opening between middle and inner ear, that when it moves sound is transmitted to inner ear)
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Auditory ossicles
-malleus
-incus
-stapes
Amplify sound waves from tympanic membrane!
1-malleus: articulates with tympanic membrane and incus
2 -incus: middle
3 -stapes: attaches to oval window
187
Inner ear:
1. Cochlea
2. Vestibular complex
-Semicircular ducts
- Vestibule (Utricle and Saccule)
Bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth
188
1-Bony labyrinth
Series of canals embedded within TEMPORAL bone
Contains:
-Perilymph
-Inner membranous labyrinth (endolymph)
189
2-Membranous labyrinth
Contains ENDOLYMPH
190
Perilymph
Rich in sodium and low in potassium and calcium
Fills the spaces between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth, acting as a medium to TRANSMIT SOUND WAVES TO THE INNER EAR
191
Endolymph
Rich in potassium and low in sodium and calcium
Resides WITHIN the membranous labyrinth and is crucial for the proper functioning of the HAIR CELLS responsible for hearing and balance
192
Vestibule
-utricle
-saccule
Both composed of macula tissue (hair cells surrounded by support cells)
HEAD POSITION IS SENSED BY UTRICLE AND SACCULE
**info is transmitted to the brain stem and cerebellum
193
Semicircular canals
-semicircular ducts
SENSES HEAD MOVEMENT
**info is transmitted to the brain stem and cerebellum
194
Cochlea
-cochlear ducts
Transduction of Hearing... essentially converts sound waves to nerve impulse to travel via CN VIII (auditory/vestibular nerve) to temporal lobe of brain for interpretation or brainstem/cerebellum for body awareness
195
Vestibular complex
Process of vestibulation (rotational and linear movement)
196
Hair cells
-Stereocilia
-Kinocilium
Movement of stereo cilia causes nervous response that is later interpreted as sound
197
Cochlea
-3 fluid filled structures AND organ of corti
Scala vestibuli: aka vestibular duct.. this compartment contains PERILYMPH.
Scala media: aka cochlear duct, this compartment contains ENDOLYMPH.
*ORGAN OF CORTI HERE
Scala tympani: aka tympanic duct, this compartment contains PERILYMPH.
ORGAN OF CORTI: Between the scala media and scala tympani. O.C. contains hair cells with stereocilia (tiny hair-like projections that react to fluid movement in the cochlea)
-When sound waves enter the ear, they cause the stereocilia to move, which triggers an electrical signal that travels to the brain via the hearing nerve. The brain interprets this electrical signal as sound
198
Vestibular membrane vs Basilar membrane
VESTIBULAR MEMBRANE: separates the scala vestibuli from the scala media within the cochlea
-BARRIER BET DIF FLUID
BASALAR MEMBRANE: separates the scala media from the scala tympani, essentially acting as the floor of the cochlear duct where the sensory hair cells responsible for hearing are located
-DETECTS DIF SOUND FREQ.
**CREATE COMPARTMENTS within the cochlea filled with endolymph, but the basilar membrane is primarily responsible for detecting different sound frequencies based on where it vibrates along its length, while the vestibular membrane primarily functions as a barrier between the different fluid compartments of the cochlea.
199
Spiral organ
Organ of Corti (within cochlea)
The Organ of Corti is an inner ear organ located WITHIN COCHLEA that contributes to audition.
It includes 3 rows of outer hair cells and 1 row of inner hair cells. Vibrations caused by sound waves bend the stereocilia on these hair cells via an electromechanical force.
200
Tectorial membrane
gelatinous, ribbon-like structure in the inner ear that contributes to cochlear sensitivity
201
Otoliths
Calcium carbonate crystals located on top of the otolithcic membrane.
Make membrane TOP HEAVY.
membrane moves separate from macula in response to head movements.
202
Otolithic membrane
Viscous gel that the hair cells extend into.
203
Utricle and saccule
-Orientation
-Linear acceleration
UTRICLE AND SACCULE RESPONSIBLE FOR ORIENTATION ADN LINEAR ACCELERATION!
204
Semicircular canals
ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT
-Ampulla
-Cupula
AMPULLA: location where the base of each semicircular canal meets with the vestibule
(looks like the sac filled with fluid that holds cupula)
--contains hair cells that respond to ROTATIONAL MOVEMENT
CUPULA: located within the ampulla. Deflects opposite to head movement due to fluid lagging.
205
Module 23: Skull and Muscles of the Face
206
Cranial bones
207
Ethmoid
-Cribriform plate
-Cribiform foramina
208
Frontal
209
Occipital
-Hypoglossal canal
-Foramen magnum
210
Sphenoid
-Optic canal
-Superior orbital fissure
211
Parietal
212
Temporal
-Carotid canal
-External acoustic meatus
-Mastoid process
-Styloid process
-Stylomastoid foramen
-Mandibular fossa
213
Jugular foramen
214
Facial bones:
215
Vomer (Facial bones)
216
Mandible (Facial bones)
-Alveolar processes
-Mental foramen
-Mandibular foramen
-Mandibular condyle
-Temporomandibular joint
-Coronoid process
217
Maxillae (Facial bones)
-Alveolar processes
-Hard palate
-Maxillary sinus
218
Palatine (Facial bones)
219
Zygomatic (Facial bones)
-zygomatic arch
220
Lacrimal (Facial bones)
221
Nasal (Facial bones)
222
Inferior nasal conchae (Facial bones)
223
Coronal suture
224
Sagittal suture
225
Lambdoid suture
226
Squamous suture
227
Fontanelles
228
Anterior cranial fossa
229
Middle cranial fossa
230
Posterior cranial fossa
231
Muscles of Facial expression:
232
Occipitofrontalis (Muscles of Facial expression)
-Frontal belly
-Occipital belly
-Epicranial aponeurosis
233
Procerus (Muscles of Facial expression)
234
Nasalis (Muscles of Facial expression)
235
Buccinator (Muscles of Facial expression)
236
Depressor angle oris (Muscles of Facial expression)
237
Depressor labii inferioris (Muscles of Facial expression)
238
Levator anguli oris (Muscles of Facial expression)
239
Levator labii superioris (Muscles of Facial expression)
240
Levator labii superioris alequae nasi (Muscles of Facial expression)
241
Zygomaticus major (Muscles of Facial expression)
242
Zygomaticus minor (Muscles of Facial expression)
243
Orbicularis oris (Muscles of Facial expression)
244
Risorius (Muscles of Facial expression)
245
Mentalis (Muscles of Facial expression)
246
Corrugator supercilii (Muscles of Facial expression)
247
Orbicularis oculi (Muscles of Facial expression)
248
Levator palpeerde superioris (Muscles of Facial expression)
249
Platysma (Muscles of Facial expression)
250
Module 24: Muscles and triangles of the neck
251
Root of the neck (Neck)
252
Hyoid bone (Neck)
253
Superficial fascia (Neck)
-platysma
254
Deep fascial layers (Neck)
-Pretrachial fascia
-Prevertebral fascia
-Carotid sheath
-Prevertebral space
255
Sternocleidomastoid (Neck)
256
Anterior, middle, and posterior scalenes (Neck)
257
Suprahyoid muscles (Neck)
-Digastric (anterior vs belly)
-Geniohyoid
-Stylohyoid
-Mylohyoid
258
Infrahyoid muscles (Neck)
-Omohyoid
-Sternohyoid
-Thyrohyoid
-Sternothyroid
259
Anterior Triangle (Neck)
-Submental triangle
-Submandibular triangle
-Carotid triangle
-Muscular triangle
260
Posterior triangle (Neck)
-Occipital triangle
-Supraclavicular triangle
261
Common carotid artery (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
262
Internal carotid artery (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
263
External carotid artery (Vasculature of the Head & Neck
-Superior thyroid artery
-Lingual artery
-Facial artery
-Occipital artery
-Maxillary artery
-Superficial temporal artery
264
Vertebral artery (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
265
Subclavian artery (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
266
Superior sagittal sinus (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
267
Transverse sinus (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
268
Inferior sagittal sinus (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
269
Straight sinus (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
270
Sigmoid sinus (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
271
Internal jugular vein (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
272
External jugular vein (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
273
Subclavian vein (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
274
Brachiocephalic vein (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
275
Superior vena cava (Vasculature of the Head & Neck)
276
Module 25: Oral Cavity and Taste
277
Vestibule
278
Oral cavity proper
279
Fauces
280
Cheeks
281
Lips
282
Gingivae (gums)
283
Palate
-hard palate
-soft palate
284
Uvula
285
Palatoglossal arch
-Palatoglossus muscle
286
Palatopharyngeal arch
-Palatopharyngeus muscle
287
Palatine tonsils
288
Tongue
-Bolus
-Lingual frenulum
-Intrinsic muscles
-Extrinsic muscles
-Lingual tonsils
-Hypoglossal nerve
289
Muscles of Mastication
-Temporalis
-Masseter
-Medial pterygoid
-Lateral pterygoid
290
Temporomandibular joint
291
Intrinsic salivary glands (Salivary glands)
292
Extrinsic Salivary glands (Salivary glands)
293
Parotid gland (Salivary glands)
-Parotid duct
294
Submandibular gland (Salivary glands)
-Submandibular duct
295
Sublingual glands (Salivary glands)
-Sublingual ducts
296
Crown (Teeth)
297
Neck (Teeth)
298
Root (Teeth)
299
Pulp cavity (Teeth)
300
Dentin (Teeth)
301
Cementum (Teeth)
302
Enamel (Teeth)
303
Periodontal ligaments (Teeth)
304
Gomphosis joint (Teeth)
305
Incisors (Teeth)
306
Canines (Teeth)
307
Premolars (Teeth)
308
Molars (Teeth)
309
Taste buds (Gustation)
310
Papillae (Gustation)
-Filiform papillae
-Fungiform papillae
-Vallate papillae
311
Gustatory cells (Gustation)
-Gustatory microvillus (taste hair)
312
Module 26: Pharynx and Larynx
Nasal Cavity and smell
313
Pharynx
314
Nasopharynx (Pharynx)
-auditory tubes
-pharyngeal tonsil
315
Oropharynx (Pharynx)
-Palatine tonsils
-Lingual tonsils
316
Laryngopharynx (Pharynx)
317
Superior, middle, and inferior pharyngeal constrictors (Pharynx)
318
Levator veli palatini (Pharynx)
319
Tensor veli palatini (Pharynx)
320
Palatopharyngeus (Pharynx)
321
Stylopharyngeus (Pharynx)
322
Salpingopharyngeus (Pharynx)
323
Larynx
324
Thyroid cartilage (Larynx)
-Laryngeal prominence
325
Cricoid cartilage (Larynx)
326
Epiglottis (Larynx)
327
Arytenoid cartilages (Larynx)
328
Epiglottis (Larynx)
329
Arytenoid cartilages (Larynx)
330
Vestibular folds (Larynx)
331
Vocal folds (Larynx)
332
Glottis (Larynx)
333
Extrinsic muscles (Larynx)
-supra/infrahyoid muscles
334
Intrinsic muscles (Larynx)
-Muscles moving laryngeal cartilages
**do not need to know the names of these
335
Alar cartilage (Nasal cavity/related)
336
Nasal septum (Nasal cavity/related)
337
Nasal cavity (Nasal cavity/related)
338
Paranasal sinuses (Nasal cavity/related)
-Frontal sinus
-Ethmoid air cells
-Sphenoid sinus
-Maxillary sinus
339
Superior nasal conchae (Nasal cavity/related)
340
Middle nasal conchae (Nasal cavity/related)
341
Inferior nasal conchae (Nasal cavity/related)
342
Superior nasal meatus (Nasal cavity/related)
343
Middle nasal meatus (Nasal cavity/related)
344
Inferior nasal meatus (Nasal cavity/related)
345
Nasal bones (Nasal cavity/related)
346
Frontal bone (Nasal cavity/related)
347
Ethmoid bone (Nasal cavity/related)
-Cribriform plate foramina
348
Sphenoid bone (Nasal cavity/related)
349
Palatine bone (Nasal cavity/related)
350
Vomer (Nasal cavity/related)
351
Maxilla (Nasal cavity/related)
352
Olfactory epithelium (Olfaction)
353
Mucus layer (Olfaction)
354
Olfactory receptor neurons/olfactory receptor cells (Olfaction)
355
Olfactory hairs/cilia (Olfaction)
356
Olfactory bulbs (Olfaction)
357
Olfactory tracts (Olfaction)
358
Primary olfactory cortex (Olfaction)
359
Module 27: Cranial Nerve Review
360
Cranial Nerves (List in order)
361
CN I:
Olfactory nerve
362
CN II
Optic Nerve
363
CN III
Oculomotor Nerve
364
CN IV
Trochlear Nerve
365
CN V
Trigeminal nerve
366
CN VI
Abducens nerve
367
CN VII
Facial Nerve
368
CN VIII
Vestibulocochlear nerve
369
CN IX
Glossopharyngeal nerve
370
CN X
Vagus nerve
371
CN XI
Accessory nerve
372
CN XII
Hypoglossal nerve
373
General somatic sensory (Neural modalities)
374
General somatic motor (Neural modalities)
375
General visceral sensory (Neural modalities)
376
General visceral motor (Neural modalities)
377
Special sensory (Neural modalities)
378
Oculomotor nerve (CN III) (Autonomics of Head/Neck)
-Ciliary ganglion
379
Facial Nerve (CN VII) (Autonomics of Head/Neck)
-Pterygopalatine ganglion
-Submandibular ganglion
Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) (Autonomics of Head/Neck)
-Otic ganglion
380
Vagus nerve (X) (Autonomics of Head/Neck)
