Unit 3: Flashcards

Question

What were the results of Lewis study (2014) ?

Answer 1

• Participants: Data from 30 participants (17 PD, 13 control) were recorded, with some dropouts and exclusions. • Baseline differences: PD participants had higher tension, confusion, vigour, and TMD scores than POMS geriatric norms, while controls did not differ. • Mood disturbance: PD participants had higher TMD scores than controls throughout the study. • Long-term improvement: Significant reduction in mood disturbance over time for all participants, with notable decreases in anger.

Answer 2

The researchers suggest that participating in weekly dance classes can significantly improve mood in both the elderly with and without PD. They propose two reasons for this: 1. Dance provides mental challenges (memory, learning, and spatial awareness). 2. Dance is a sociable exercise, which helps combat loneliness, a factor linked to depression, and improves mood.

Answer 3

The endorphin hypothesis. This suggests that vigorous exercise stimulates the release of beta-endorphins, natural painkillers produced by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. These endorphins, chemically similar to morphine, bind to opiate receptor sites in the nervous system, reducing pain and triggering changes in synaptic plasticity. This may explain why exercise can lead to feelings of euphoria, often referred to as the “runner’s high,” and helps athletes endure intense physical activity.

Answer 4

The study aimed to investigate the neuro-chemical basis of the runner’s high by recruiting 10 male athletes. Participants were selected based on their running habits and experience with euphoria during exercise. They underwent two PET scans: one at rest and one 30 minutes after a 2-hour run. Mood changes were measured using the Visual Analog Mood Scale (VAMS). The results showed significant increases in happiness and euphoria, which were linked to changes in opioid receptor binding in brain regions like the pre-frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula cortex. This suggests that endorphin levels increase in these areas after exercise, contributing to the feeling of euphoria.

Answer 5

The Profile of Mood States (POMS), developed by McNair et al. (1971), measures six mood states: five negative (tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion) and one positive (vigour). Respondents complete a 65-item questionnaire, indicating how they have felt over the past week on a five-point scale. Each mood state is quantified, and scores are summed to create a mood profile, which can be plotted as a line graph. The POMS allows for the comparison of pre- and post-exercise mood changes and offers a general measure of depression. In Lewis et al.’s (2014) research, the POMS was used to assess mood changes in Parkinson’s disease patients following a dance intervention.

Answer 6

Green exercise, which involves outdoor physical activities, was investigated by Peacock, Hine, and Pretty to assess its effects on mood. Participants (20 people aged 31-70 from a local MIND group) took part in two one-hour walks, one outdoors at Belhus Country Park and the other indoors at Lakeside shopping centre. Mood and self-esteem were measured before and after the walks using the Profile of Mood States (POMS). The results showed that the outdoor walk led to a significant improvement in mood, with reductions in anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension, and increased vigour and self-esteem (p<0.01). In contrast, the indoor walk showed only a slight change in mood disturbance. Participants reported that outdoor walking was effective due to the fresh air, scenic surroundings, social interaction, and the enjoyment of nature.

Answer 7

Smith et al. developed the Coach Effectiveness Training (CET) programme to improve youth sports by enhancing coach-player relationships. Based on a study of 51 Little League coaches and 542 players, coaches were observed, and players were later interviewed. The findings led to guidelines for good coaching practices.

Answer 8

The CET programme aimed to increase coaches’ awareness of their behaviour, its impact, and how to develop positive coaching skills. It sought to improve coach-player and teammate relationships while reducing negative interactions.

Answer 9

The authors predicted that CET would enhance positive interactions and have a greater impact on players with low self-esteem.

Answer 10

A sample of 34 male Little League baseball coaches (average age 36, with eight years of experience) was recruited from a previous study. Eighteen were randomly assigned to the experimental group, receiving CET training, while 16 were in the control group with no training. All 18 in the experimental group attended the training, while three from the control group dropped out, leaving a final sample of 31 coaches.

Answer 11

Procedure of the CET Programme 1. Training Session: • Experimental coaches attended a two-hour session where they learned about the previous study’s findings and received coaching guidelines. • Guidelines were presented verbally and in a brochure, with examples of desirable and undesirable behaviors. 2. Coaching Guidelines: • Emphasized reinforcement, encouragement, and technical instruction. • Aimed to improve coach-player relationships and reduce fear of failure. • Example: Coaches were advised to encourage players after mistakes rather than punish them. 3. Coaching ‘Do’s and Don’ts’ (Example): • DO: Encourage immediately after mistakes, give corrective instruction positively, and emphasize what good things will happen if instructions are followed. • DON’T: Punish mistakes or show disapproval, as it increases fear of failure. 4. Self-Monitoring & Feedback: • Coaches received behavioral feedback in the first two weeks. • They self-monitored their behaviors after each of the first ten matches, reporting their use of desirable coaching practices. • Reports were sent to researchers to ensure adherence.

Answer 12

Measurement of Variables 1. Observed Coach Behaviors: • 16 trained undergraduate observers used the Coaching Behavioural Assessment System (CBAS) to assess coaches’ behaviors in 12 categories (e.g., reinforcement, encouragement, punishment). • Each coach was covertly observed over four games, with observers unaware of the coach’s experimental condition. 2. Player Perceptions & Attitudes: • 325 boys (82% of the total sample) were interviewed at home at the end of the season. • They rated their coach’s behavior using CBAS items on a 7-point scale (e.g., frequency of encouragement). • They also rated their own ability, attitudes toward playing, and attitudes toward their coach. 3. Player Self-Esteem: • After the interview, boys completed a general self-esteem test.

Answer 13

Results Summary 1. Observed Behaviors: • No overall differences in behavior between experimental and control coaches. • Experimental coaches used reinforcement more frequently (p < 0.05). • Experimental coaches also used more mistake-contingent encouragement and general technical instruction, while using less non-reinforcement, punishment, and punitive technical instruction. 2. Player Attitudes: • No difference in liking baseball between the two groups. • Boys in the experimental condition: • Enjoyed playing for their coach more (p < 0.001). • Wanted to be coached by them again (p < 0.001). • Rated their coach higher as a teacher (p < 0.01). • Had a more positive relationship with their teammates (p < 0.001).

Answer 14

Tuckman’s Four-Stage Model of Group Cohesion Development (1965): • Forming: Team members meet and seek acceptance. • Storming: Conflict arises as members vie for position, leading to frustration. • Norming: Team members agree on goals, performance standards, and roles. • Performing: Conflicts are resolved, and the team focuses on achieving tasks. 3. Characteristics of Cohesive Teams: • Shared goals, team identity, respect, trust, good communication, and cooperation.

Answer 15

Team members like each other and feel satisfaction from being part of the team.

Answer 16

Team members work together to achieve shared goals.

Answer 17

Carron et al. (1997) developed a four-point model for team building: - team distinctiveness (e.g., wearing a uniform), -social cohesion (e.g., team events), -clear team goals (e.g., setting daily goals), -team communication (e.g., regular meetings). They also provided practical tips for coaches, including ensuring players understand roles, encouraging pride in sub-team achievements, involving players in decisions, emphasizing individual importance, allowing disagreements, and maintaining a positive focus even in tough times.

Answer 18

Senecal (2008) studied the impact of a season-long team-building intervention on cohesion in 86 female high-school basketball players. Teams were randomly assigned to a goal-setting group or a control group, with cohesion measured using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) at the start and end of the season. The goal-setting group identified key performance indicators, set team goals collaboratively, and reviewed them throughout the season. Results showed that while both groups had similar cohesion at the start, the goal-setting group had significantly higher social and task cohesion by the end of the season.

Answer 19

Zajonc et al. theorised that the presence of others is a source of general drive.

Answer 20

Drive theory suggests that arousal increases in the presence of others, and that this affects performance. It improves performance for a well-learned or easy task, but impedes performance for a novel or complex task.

Answer 21

The authors aimed to provide evidence for the drive theory using cockroaches.

Answer 22

72 adult female cockroaches Studies for 1 week Kept individually in jars with screened lids, in the dark Temperature of 24 degrees Fed peeled and sliced apple

Answer 23

Zajonc et al. designed an experiment using cockroach “runs” within a 20 x 20 x 20 inch Perspex cube to test the effects of an audience on performance. There were two tasks: • The easy task was a straight runway from a start box to a goal box with a dark interior to attract the cockroach. • The complex task was a maze requiring the cockroach to make a right turn to reach the goal. Both tasks had a black Bakelite floor (2 inches wide) and Perspex walls (1 inch high). A 150-watt floodlight was placed behind the start box to encourage movement. Additionally, four see-through Perspex boxes around the setup housed spectator cockroaches to act as an “audience.”

Answer 24

The study used photophobic cockroaches to test the effects of social presence on performance. The cockroaches’ task was to run from a start box to a goal box when a floodlight was turned on, and their performance was timed. The floodlight was the only light source during testing. Three conditions were used: 1. Alone condition: Cockroaches ran the maze alone to establish a baseline performance. 2. Co-action condition: Two cockroaches ran together, testing whether social presence improved performance on an easy task (runway) but impaired performance on a complex task (maze). 3. Audience condition: Four cockroaches were placed in transparent audience boxes around the setup to measure the effect of passive spectators. This controlled for the possibility that improvements were due to imitation rather than arousal. Each trial followed the same procedure: the cockroach(es) were placed in the start box, the floodlight was turned on, and the sliding door opened. Performance was recorded based on how quickly they reached the goal box. The setup was cleaned with alcohol between trials.

Answer 25

Zajonc et al. found that social presence affected performance differently depending on task difficulty: • Runway (easy task): Co-acting cockroaches were the fastest, followed by those with an audience, while lone cockroaches were the slowest. • Maze (complex task): Lone cockroaches were the fastest, followed by those with an audience, while co-acting cockroaches were the slowest. These results support drive theory, showing that the presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks but hinders performance on complex tasks.

Answer 26

Tested the prediction made by Drive Theory that the presence of an audience would improve performance in a dominant task (for more skilled players) and inhibit performance of a non-dominant task. Initially 12 student pool players were observed from a distance in the student union and their shot potting accuracy was recorded so that they could be classified as above- or below-average (6 participants in each condition). The 4 researchers then stood around the table where the students were playing and again observed their performance. The above-average players' shot accuracy increased from 71% to 80% when the audience were present, whereas the below-average players shot accuracy decreased from 36% to 25%.

Answer 27

Cottrell (1968) proposed the evaluation apprehension theory, which suggests that social inhibition occurs due to the performer’s fear of being judged by an audience. The audience can either approve and reward or disapprove and punish, leading to increased anxiety, which negatively affects performance. The theory also suggests that more expert audiences create greater anxiety, explaining why athletes may struggle in competitions despite performing well in training. However, this theory does not fully explain why an audience sometimes enhances performance, indicating that other factors, such as home advantage, may also influence outcomes.

Answer 28

In pre-modern societies, madness was commonly believed to result from possession by various spirits, including those of ancestors, animals, gods, heroes, or individuals who had been wronged. These spirits could take control of a person through their own cunning, the actions of a sorcerer, or the possessed individual’s lack of faith. To cure such conditions, some ancient cultures practiced trephining—drilling or chipping holes into the skull—to provide an exit for the trapped spirits. Skulls from Paleolithic cave dwellers show evidence of this practice, suggesting it was an early form of treatment for perceived spiritual possession.

Answer 29

Hippocrates’ theory of physiology linked mental health to the balance of four bodily humours: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. An imbalance in these fluids was believed to cause mental disorders. Excess phlegm led to sluggishness, black bile to melancholia, yellow bile to irritability and anxiety, too much blood to a changeable temperament.

Answer 30

Early treatment of the mentally ill was often brutal, as seen in institutions like St. Mary’s of Bethlehem (Bedlam) in London, where patients were chained to walls or kept on leashes. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Hospital, founded in 1756, confined “lunatics” to the cellar, where they were subjected to harsh treatments such as bloodletting, purging, and physical restraint. At the time, insanity was believed to stem from a loss of reason, making the insane more like animals. Fear was seen as the best way to restore rationality, leading to severe punishments. However, by the late 18th century, growing opposition from respected voices began to challenge these cruel methods, advocating for more humane treatment.

Answer 31

Philippe Pinel, a French physician, was instrumental in reforming the treatment of the mentally ill. Initially studying literature and theology, he later earned his M.D. in 1773. Moving to Paris in 1778, he developed an interest in mental disorders. In 1792, as chief physician at the Bicêtre asylum, he introduced humane treatment by removing chains from patients and allowing them outdoor exercise, successfully improving their conditions. Rejecting the idea that mental illness was caused by demonic possession, he proposed psychological stress, congenital conditions, or physiological injury as causes. He emphasized compassionate care, doctor-patient interaction, and detailed case histories. In 1795, he introduced similar reforms at Salpêtrière. His work contributed to shifting mental illness explanations from supernatural causes to biological (somatogenic) and psychological (psychogenic) theories, shaping modern psychiatric care.

Answer 32

The medical model of mental illness, developed by Emil Kraepelin, classifies disorders based on recurring symptom patterns. In 1896, he identified dementia praecox (schizophrenia) and manic-depressive psychosis, linking them to biological causes. His work influenced the DSM and ICD classification systems and shaped the 1983 Mental Health Act in England and Wales.

Answer 33

The DSM-5 is organized by developmental stages, starting with disorders that appear early in life, followed by those in adolescence and adulthood. It groups disorders into internalising disorders (e.g., depression and anxiety) and externalizing disorders (e.g., impulsive and disruptive behaviors). This structure aims to reflect clinical reality and improve utility.

Answer 34

Gender-related issues in the DSM-5 include differences in the expression of certain disorders. For example, in hoarding disorder, while the core symptoms (difficulty discarding items and excessive clutter) are similar in both genders, females tend to show more excessive acquisition, particularly through buying, compared to males.

Answer 35

Culture-related diagnostic issues in the DSM-5 recognize that certain behaviors may be culturally accepted or hold spiritual, medicinal, or social significance. For example, eating nonnutritive substances like earth may be a normal practice in some cultures and not warrant a diagnosis of pica.

Answer 36

The DSM-III introduced diagnostic criteria specifying symptoms and timeframes a patient must exhibit, following Rosenhan’s 1973 field experiment. These criteria aimed to improve the reliability of diagnoses (ensuring consistency among clinicians) and their validity (ensuring the diagnoses are accurate).

Answer 37

Rosenhan wanted to see if it was possible to tell the difference between sanity and insanity in a person, and whether hospitals really could tell the difference between someone who is sane and someone who is insane.

Answer 38

Rosenhan’s study used a field experiment 8 pseudopatients attempted to gain admission to 12 psychiatric hospitals across the USA. The hospitals varied in size, funding, and staffing levels. Each pseudopatient pretended to experience auditory hallucinations, reporting hearing the words “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” Apart from this symptom, they provided truthful personal details but concealed any medical background. Once admitted, they stopped showing any symptoms and behaved normally, interacting with staff and patients. They complied with hospital routines but did not swallow the medication given to them. Throughout their stay, they observed and documented their experiences, only leaving when officially discharged.

Answer 39

The participants were the people in the hospital - not the pseudopatients. Data was collected on the other patients and the medical staff in the hospitals. In all, 12 hospitals were included in the study. Only in one did the hospital administrator and chief psychologist know what Rosenhan (himself the first pseudopatient) was doing.

Answer 40

Rosenhan’s study found that psychiatric staff were unable to distinguish between real patients and pseudopatients pretending to be mentally ill, with all but one pseudopatient diagnosed with schizophrenia. Staff were biased towards diagnosing illness, making it harder to detect sanity. In a follow-up study, hospital staff were told that pseudopatients would try to gain admission, yet they mistakenly identified real patients as pseudopatients, showing that psychiatric diagnoses can be highly unreliable. This highlighted the flaws in distinguishing between sanity and insanity.

Answer 41

In the study, a pseudopatient in four hospitals asked staff polite questions, such as about discharge or grounds privileges, but only 6% of psychiatrists and 2.5% of nurses or attendants stopped to answer. In contrast, at Stanford University, where a young female student asked various questions, all questions were answered, and people did not walk away. However, when the student mentioned she was “looking for a psychiatrist,” the response rate dropped, highlighting how the mere hint of mental illness significantly reduced interpersonal interactions.

Answer 42

The study suggested that instead of hospitalizing patients with labels, community-based therapy should be used to treat specific behaviors. Hospital staff weren’t malicious but were influenced by the environment, highlighting the need for better training and empathy. However, the study’s relevance may be limited today, as it was conducted in the 1970s.

Answer 43

DSM-5 (Major Depressive Episode) • Symptoms: At least five symptoms must be present for two weeks, including either depressed mood or loss of interest. • Additional Symptoms: Weight loss, insomnia or excessive sleep, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, thoughts of death or suicide. • Impact: Symptoms must cause significant distress or impairment in functioning and cannot be attributed to another condition or substance.

Answer 44

DSM-5: Schizophrenia • Symptoms: At least two of the following must be present for one month, with at least one being delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech: 1. Delusions 2. Hallucinations 3. Disorganized speech 4. Disorganized or catatonic behavior 5. Negative symptoms (e.g., diminished emotional expression) • Functioning: Must be below the individual’s level of functioning before the onset of symptoms (e.g., difficulties with self-care or academic performance). • Duration: Symptoms must persist for at least six months, even if at a minor level. • Exclusion: Symptoms should not be attributed to other disorders or substances.

Answer 45

DSM-5: Agoraphobia • Situations: Marked fear or anxiety about two or more of the following: 1. Using public transport 2. Being in open spaces 3. Being in enclosed places 4. Standing in line or in a crowd 5. Being outside the home alone • Response: These situations almost always trigger anxiety and are actively avoided or require a companion. • Proportionality: Fear is excessive and out of proportion to the actual danger, even if another condition (e.g., IBS) causes anxiety. • Duration: Symptoms persist for at least six months. • Impact: Causes significant distress and impairment in daily functioning. • Exclusion: Not due to another disorder or external factors like past trauma.

Answer 46

that imbalances in neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, are linked to psychological disorders. Just as a lack of insulin causes diabetes, chemical imbalances in the brain may contribute to conditions like depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety.

Answer 47

Low serotonin levels have been associated with depression, leading to treatments like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which prevent serotonin from being reabsorbed too quickly, increasing its effect. However, research is mixed on whether low serotonin directly causes depression.

Answer 48

Dopamine - with an overactive dopamine system thought to contribute to symptoms. Antipsychotic drugs work by blocking dopamine receptors to regulate its effects. Additionally, drugs like cocaine and heroin affect dopamine levels, which may explain their link to psychotic disorders.

Answer 49

That biochemical imbalances cause mental illness.

Answer 50

serotonin and norepinephrine, leading to treatments like serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). However, the evidence is debated, and drug companies may influence perceptions of chemical imbalance theories.

Answer 51

certain disorders may be inherited from parents, similar to traits like eye color or body shape. While inheriting a disorder is not guaranteed, genetic predisposition can increase the likelihood of developing conditions like depression or schizophrenia, especially when combined with environmental factors.

Answer 52

the idea that some behaviors, such as phobias, may have been passed down because they aided survival. Ohman (1975) found that people were more likely to develop a fear response to images of snakes than to images of houses or faces, supporting the idea that phobias may have an evolutionary basis.

Answer 53

structural differences in the brain may contribute to psychological disorders. However, research has struggled to determine whether these abnormalities cause the disorder or result from it.

Answer 54

Brown et al. (1986) found that schizophrenic patients’ brains were 6% lighter and had larger lateral ventricles than those with affective disorders, suggesting loss of brain matter in the temporal lobe.

Answer 55

showing how brain function changes throughout mood cycles. However, it is unclear whether these abnormalities directly cause mental illness, as some people with similar brain differences may not experience symptoms.

Answer 56

drug therapy to address abnormal brain activity. In some cases, surgery may be used, such as for brain tumors causing symptoms of mental illness.

Answer 57

If we accept that previous research has found a link between one parent having a mental disorder and an increased incidence of that mental disorder in the child, then it should follow that having two parents with a psychiatric illness would increase the risk (to super-high risk) of the child having this or a similar disorder.

Answer 58

The study aimed to investigate, using a large sample, the likelihood of children developing a psychiatric disorder when both parents had been diagnosed with one. The researchers were particularly interested in whether children would develop the same disorder as their parents or a related mental illness.

Answer 59

The study used data from the Civil Registration System in Denmark, including individuals born in or after 1968 with known biological parents. The final sample included 2,685,301 people and their parents, covering 1,278,977 couples (some with multiple children). Participants were identified using the Psychiatric Central Register, focusing on those diagnosed with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression. The study specifically examined children of couples where both parents had been admitted to a psychiatric hospital.

Answer 60

1. Children with one parent admitted. 2. Children with neither parent admitted. 3. A general population group where parental psychiatric history was unknown.

Answer 61

Children of the identified couples (aged up to 52 years) were checked in the Psychiatric Central Register for any mental disorder diagnosis. Diagnoses were classified based on ICD-8 and ICD-10 criteria, using the discharge diagnosis from hospital records. Participants were divided into four groups: • Group A: Both parents had been admitted with the same psychiatric disorder. • Group B: Only one parent had been admitted with a psychiatric disorder. • Group C: Neither parent had been admitted with a psychiatric disorder. • Group D: No restrictions or data on parental admissions (general population baseline). This method ensured a large-scale, reliable analysis of how parental psychiatric illness influences offspring mental health.

Answer 62

Since the data was publicly available and anonymised, ethical consent was not required from the Danish Ethics Committee.

Answer 63

Overall Risk of Any Psychiatric Disorder by Age 52: • 67.5% of offspring with both parents diagnosed with schizophrenia had been admitted for a psychiatric disorder.

Answer 64

Gottesman’s study reinforced previous smaller studies by demonstrating a strong genetic link in psychiatric disorders using a large and robust sample size. However, he acknowledged several ethical and practical considerations: • Health System Differences: Results may vary in countries where healthcare is privately funded, affecting diagnosis and treatment rates. • Practical Implications: The findings could help individuals make informed decisions about marriage, children, and future planning, but Gottesman stressed the importance of well-informed counsellors to guide such decisions.

Answer 65

• Bipolar disorder and depression are underrepresented, as they are often treated outside hospital settings. • Psychiatric ward capacity is decreasing, leading to shorter hospital stays rather than fewer admissions.

Answer 66

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are commonly used to treat depression anxiety disorders by increasing serotonin levels in the brain.

Answer 67

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps regulate mood. Normally, serotonin is released into the synapse and binds to receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron to transmit signals. However, some serotonin is reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron, which can lead to insufficient levels and contribute to anxiety. SSRIs block this reuptake, ensuring more serotonin remains in the synapse, improving neural communication and reducing anxiety symptoms.

Answer 68

• Effective for various anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, PTSD, OCD, GAD). • Safe for medically ill or frail patients and in overdose situations. • No withdrawal effects unless stopped abruptly, and no dependency risk. • Do not typically cause weight gain.

Answer 69

• Slow onset: Therapeutic effects take 4-6 weeks, with full benefits at 12 weeks. • Initial worsening of anxiety in the first two weeks. • Expensive and can cause flu-like withdrawal symptoms if stopped suddenly. • Sexual dysfunction occurs in 35-40% of patients, making it a major drawback.

Answer 70

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Answer 71

involves recognizing unhelpful thoughts, challenging them, and using behavioral techniques to develop healthier coping strategies. It is typically short-term and structured, with a focus on practical problem-solving and skill-building.

Answer 72

suggests that mental illnesses arise from faulty thinking patterns, which can be challenged and modified through therapy. focuses on faulty thought processes as the cause of disorders. People with mental illnesses, such as depression, tend to have irrational cognitions and distorted thinking.

Answer 73

People with depression have three dysfunctional beliefs: • “I am worthless.” • “Everything I do results in failure.” • “The future is hopeless.” These negative thoughts lead to selective attention to negative experiences, reinforcing depressive symptoms.

Answer 74

• People with mental disorders may have unrealistic expectations (e.g., “I must be outstandingly competent, or I am worthless”). • These unattainable standards lead to frustration, disappointment, and depression.

Answer 75

While biological factors play a role, Beck suggested that cognitive deficits (e.g., poor memory, attention issues) contribute to schizophrenia. • The diathesis-stress model suggests that genetic predisposition interacts with environmental stressors to trigger the disorder.

Answer 76

Cognitive Therapy (Beck): Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) (Ellis): Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): • Combines cognitive and behavioural approaches to treat disorders like depression, anxiety, PTSD, OCD, and even schizophrenia. • Focuses on the present thoughts and behaviours rather than past experiences. • Can be individual or group-based and typically lasts up to 20 sessions. • Morrison et al. (2014) found that CBT reduced symptoms of schizophrenia in patients who refused antipsychotic drugs.

Answer 77

Helps patients modify distorted thinking through discussion and cognitive restructuring. Patients learn to challenge negative thoughts and develop emotional regulation skills.

Answer 78

Therapists help clients identify and change self-defeating beliefs (e.g., proving to a mother with post-natal depression that she is a good mother through journaling her positive actions).

Answer 79

The behaviourist explanation of mental illness suggests that disorders are learned and maintained through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory. 1. Classical Conditioning: Some mental illnesses, particularly phobias, develop when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a fear-inducing stimulus. 2. Operant Conditioning: Behaviours are reinforced through rewards or the removal of negative experiences. Negative reinforcement maintains anxiety disorders—for example, avoiding lifts reduces anxiety, reinforcing the phobia. Depression may also be reinforced if attention is given to those showing symptoms. 3. Social Learning Theory: Mental illnesses, such as depression, can be learned by observing and imitating role models who display unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as withdrawal and mood swings.

Answer 80

An example is the Little Albert experiment, where a loud noise was paired with a white rat, causing Albert to develop a phobia of the rat and similar objects.

Answer 81

Systematic desensitisation Flooding Aversion therapy Positive reinforcement

Answer 82

suggests that mental illness arises from unconscious conflicts, particularly those stemming from childhood. These conflicts occur between the id (instincts), ego (rational self), and superego (morality), leading to anxiety and abnormal behaviour. If unresolved, these conflicts can manifest as personality disorders, depression, or even psychotic disorders like schizophrenia.

Answer 83

Freud believed that overuse of ego defense mechanisms—such as denial, repression, and distortion—can also contribute to mental health issues.

Answer 84

Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis aims to uncover and resolve unconscious conflicts. Techniques include: • Dream Analysis – Interpreting the latent (hidden) meanings behind dreams. • Free Association – Encouraging patients to speak freely to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Answer 85

Uses relaxation techniques and gradual exposure to feared stimuli to replace fear with calmness (e.g., McGrath et al., 1990, with Lucy’s fear of loud noises).

Answer 86

Direct exposure to the feared object until anxiety subsides, though it can sometimes reinforce the phobia.

Answer 87

Creates negative associations (e.g., pairing alcohol with nausea-inducing drugs).

Answer 88

In his original 1960 essay, Thomas Szasz argued that mental illness is not a medical condition but a societal construct, where behaviours deemed uncomfortable by others are labelled as illnesses to justify treatment. He criticised coercive psychiatric methods used in the 1950s. In his 2011 follow-up essay, presented at the Royal College of Psychiatrists, Szasz reassessed his earlier claims. He maintained that treating mental illness as a disease harms patients rather than helps them. For instance, medicating individuals to prevent self-harm ignores their autonomy and contributes to the rise of “pseudoscientific” approaches like suicidology. He concluded that mental illness remains trapped in a “moral morass,” questioning the ethical foundations of psychiatric treatment.

Answer 89

A behaviourist treatment of anxiety disorder. therapy based on classical conditioning to treat fears, phobias, and anxieties. It works by replacing conditioned fear with relaxation through counter-conditioning. The process involves three stages: 1. Hierarchy Construction – Identifying and ranking fear-inducing situations from least to most distressing. 2. Relaxation Training – Learning deep muscle relaxation, breathing control, and visualisation techniques. 3. Gradual Exposure – Facing fears step by step while practicing relaxation until the fear response is eliminated.

Answer 90

A cognitive treatment of anxiety disorder. The cognitive approach focuses on cognitive restructuring, where irrational, stress-inducing thoughts are replaced with more realistic and constructive beliefs. A key therapy in this approach is Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), developed by Albert Ellis, which identifies faulty thinking patterns that exaggerate threats and cause anxiety. RET follows the A-B-C-D-E model: 1. A (Activating event) – A situation that triggers emotional distress (e.g., encountering a phobic stimulus). 2. B (Belief) – An irrational belief about the event (e.g., “If I go up a tall building, I will fall and die”). 3. C (Consequence) – The behavioural and emotional response, such as avoidance. 4. D (Disputing beliefs) – Challenging irrational thoughts through logical, empirical, and pragmatic questioning. 5. E (Effects) – The restructuring of beliefs to reduce anxiety and improve coping. By disputing irrational thoughts, RET helps individuals develop a more rational and balanced perspective, reducing anxiety and phobic responses.

Answer 91

Schwartz and Barsky (1977) investigated home advantage in sports by analyzing large datasets from baseball, basketball, American football, and ice hockey. They examined: • 1,880 Major League Baseball games (1971) • 182 professional football games (1971) • 910 college football games (1971) • 542 National Hockey League games (1971-72) • 15 years of college basketball data (1952-66) Results showed that in all four sports, home teams won more than 50% of games: • Baseball & Ice Hockey: 53% • Professional Football: 55% • College Football: 59% • Basketball: 82% (strongest effect) Schwartz and Barsky suggested that offensive play improves more than defensive play at home, particularly in basketball, where factors like crowd density and intimacy (rather than crowd size) may enhance home advantage.

Answer 92

. Previous research linked low prefrontal cortex activity to impulsive and aggressive behavior. • The limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus) also associated with emotional and aggressive responses. • Raine suggested dysfunction in these areas, plus the corpus callosum, may predispose individuals to violence.

Answer 93

To examine brain function differences in murderers (NGRI) vs. matched controls using PET scans, focusing on regions linked to aggression and impulse control.

Answer 94

41 murderers (39 men, 2 women, various psychiatric/neurological conditions) • 41 controls matched by age, gender, and some psychiatric conditions

Answer 95

All participants completed a 32-minute concentration task (CPT) to engage the prefrontal cortex. • Then underwent a PET scan using a radioactive glucose tracer (FDG) to measure brain activity. • Controlled for: medication use, handedness, ethnicity, head injury.

Answer 96

No performance differences on the CPT task, but significant brain activity differences: • Reduced activity in: • Prefrontal cortex (impulse control, decision-making) • Corpus callosum (communication between brain hemispheres) • Left amygdala and hippocampus (emotional processing) • Increased activity in: • Right amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus • Occipital lobe (visual processing – not linked to aggression) • No difference in the temporal lobes.

Answer 97

Murderers pleading NGRI show abnormal brain activity in areas linked to aggression and control. • However, Raine emphasizes: • Biology alone doesn’t cause violence. • PET scans cannot predict or diagnose future murderers. • Results apply only to NGRI murderers, not all violent offenders or criminals. • Multiple brain dysfunctions may increase the risk of violent behavior.

Answer 98

Palmer and Hollin (1998) Aim: To compare moral reasoning in young male offenders and non-offenders. Method: • 126 male offenders (aged 13–21) vs. 332 non-offenders (aged 13–22) • Used questionnaires measuring moral reasoning (SRM-Sf) and delinquent behavior (SRD) Findings: • Offenders showed less mature moral reasoning, mostly at preconventional level • Non-offenders used more conventional moral reasoning Conclusion: • Young offenders may have delayed moral development • Supports a biosocial view of crime—not just biological or psychological alone.

Answer 99

Jahoda (1954) – Summary Aim: To investigate whether cultural expectations can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy in criminal behavior. Method: Studied Ashanti boys in Western Africa, who were given names based on their birth day, with associated personality traits: • Monday boys (Kwadwo): expected to be calm • Wednesday boys (Kwaku): expected to be aggressive Findings: • Over 5 years, 22% of violent crimes were committed by Wednesday boys • Only 6.9% by Monday boys Conclusion: Boys internalized societal expectations linked to their names and behaved accordingly. Supports the idea of a self-fulfilling prophecy: beliefs about behavior can shape actual behavior.

Answer 100

Raine – Mauritius Study Summary Aim: To test whether early biological interventions (nutrition, exercise, cognitive stimulation) could reduce antisocial behavior and conduct problems in children. ⸻ Method: • Participants: 100 children (from 1795) in Mauritius with low resting heart rate (a risk factor for antisocial behavior), matched with a control group. • Intervention (ages 3–5): 1. Nutrition: daily milk, juice, and hot meals with protein and salad 2. Physical exercise: structured and free-play sessions 3. Cognitive stimulation: enriched nursery education (toys, art, drama, music) • Control group: standard nursery education with no added intervention. ⸻ Results: • At age 11: • Better attention and brain arousal in intervention group • At age 17: • Lower conduct disorder • Less aggression, bullying, and hot temper • Most improvement seen in poorly nourished children, with a 52.6% reduction in conduct disorder ⸻ Omega-3 Trial (Follow-up Study): • 100 children given daily omega-3 juice for 6 months; control group got juice without omega-3. • After 12 months: • Significant reductions in aggression, delinquency, and attention problems • Raine attributes this to omega-3 enhancing brain structure and function. ⸻ Conclusion: • Biological interventions (especially nutrition) can reduce antisocial behavior. • Effects are most pronounced in at-risk children, but biology alone is not enough. • Raine advocates for early, biosocial interventions to prevent violence and crime.

Answer 101

Summary – Smoking During Pregnancy & Testosterone Study Aim: To explore how smoking during pregnancy may increase foetal testosterone exposure, which is linked to traits associated with antisocial and aggressive behavior. ⸻ Key Concepts: • Digit ratio (2D:4D): • The length of the index finger (2D) vs. the ring finger (4D) is influenced by prenatal testosterone. • A longer ring finger (lower 2D:4D ratio) indicates higher prenatal testosterone exposure. • This pattern is more common in males and is linked to dominance, aggression, sensation-seeking, and impulsivity—traits associated with antisocial behavior. ⸻ Findings: • Individuals with longer ring fingers (especially males) are more likely to: • Be physically aggressive • Show low empathy • Be impulsive or hyperactive • Exhibit antisocial tendencies • Smoking during pregnancy raises maternal testosterone levels and lowers oestrogen, increasing the fetus’s exposure to testosterone. • Animal studies support a causal link: prenatal nicotine exposure leads to increased foetal testosterone. ⸻ Conclusion: • Smoking during pregnancy may biologically influence a child’s brain and behavior by increasing prenatal testosterone, potentially predisposing them to aggressive or antisocial traits. • This supports the idea that early biological factors can contribute to future criminal behavior, though they are not the sole cause.

Answer 102

Building on Dror’s findings that emotional context affects fingerprint judgments in non-experts, Hall and Player sought to examine if trained fingerprint experts would show the same bias. Specifically, they questioned whether crime scene information, routinely provided to examiners, could emotionally influence their analysis of poor-quality fingerprints.

Answer 103

1. Does the written crime report influence fingerprint identification in ambiguous cases? 2. Are fingerprint experts emotionally affected by the case circumstances?

Answer 104

70 fingerprint experts from the Metropolitan Police, with 3 months to 30+ years of experience (average 11 years).

Answer 105

Independent groups design with two conditions: • Low-emotion context: Forgery case report (victimless crime). • High-emotion context: Murder case report (violent crime).

Answer 106

Materials: Ambiguous fingerprint on a £50 note and a suspect’s ten-print form. Procedure: - Participants acted as in their normal work environment, analyzed the print, and completed a feedback questionnaire. - No time limit was set, and anonymity was maintained.

Answer 107

• 57 of 70 participants read the crime report. • 52% of those in the high-emotion group said it influenced their decision, versus 6% in the low-emotion group. • However, statistical analysis showed no significant difference in actual fingerprint identification decisions between the two groups.

Answer 108

Emotional context (e.g., crime severity) did not compromise the decision-making accuracy of expert fingerprint analysts. This suggests that professionals can maintain objectivity even when exposed to potentially biasing information. The experts’ experience may help them remain objective. Despite perceived influence among some in the murder group, final decisions remained unbiased.

Answer 109

Aim: To test whether experienced fingerprint experts can be influenced by contextual information (i.e., cognitive bias). Method: • Participants: 5 experienced fingerprint experts (mean 17 years’ experience). • Each was unknowingly given a pair of fingerprints they had previously judged to be a definite match. • This time, they were told the prints were from a case where the FBI had wrongly identified a suspect (the Madrid bombing case), implying the prints were not a match. • Experts were unaware they were being tested. Results: • Only 1 out of 5 (20%) experts stuck with their original match decision. • The other 4 (80%) changed their decision: • 3 said the prints were definitely not a match. • 1 said there was insufficient evidence to decide. Conclusion: • The experts’ judgments were influenced by the misleading context. • This demonstrated confirmation bias, where prior expectations affected objective analysis. • It raised serious concerns about the subjectivity and vulnerability of forensic fingerprint analysis to top-down cognitive influences.

Answer 110

Aim: To examine how emotional context and task difficulty affect fingerprint-matching decisions, particularly when evidence is ambiguous. Method: • Participants: 27 university students (non-experts). • 96 fingerprint pairs were used: • Half were clear matches/non-matches. • Half were ambiguous, allowing for cognitive (top-down) influence. • Emotional context was manipulated by describing the crime: • Low emotional (e.g., burglary). • High emotional (e.g., murder), with graphic photos. • Some trials included subliminal priming with words like “guilty” or “same”. Results (for ambiguous prints only): • Control: 49% matches. • Low emotional context: 47%. • High emotional context: 58%. • High emotional + subliminal priming: 66%. Conclusion: • Emotional context and subliminal cues increased the likelihood of identifying a match in ambiguous cases. • Top-down influences had no effect on unambiguous pairs. • Shows how emotion and motivation can bias forensic decisions, especially when evidence is unclear.

Answer 111

Aim: To explore methods for reducing false positive identifications in forensic evidence analysis. Method: • Participants: Student subjects. • Two conditions: 1. Given a single hair sample to compare with evidence (one-to-one comparison). 2. Given a line-up of five suspect hair samples (a “six pack” comparison) to compare with evidence. Findings: • The line-up condition significantly reduced false positives. • This approach avoids focusing on confirming a single suspect, thereby reducing confirmation bias. Conclusion: • Presenting multiple comparison options (like a suspect line-up) helps reduce bias and improves accuracy. • Miller suggested this method could be applied to fingerprint matching and other forensic analyses to minimize cognitive bias.

Answer 112

What it is: A method to reduce bias by ensuring forensic examiners assess evidence before seeing any case or suspect details. How it works: • Step 1: Examine and document crime scene evidence first. • Step 2: Reveal case info (e.g., suspect details) gradually and only if needed. • Step 3: Initial findings can be added to, but not changed or deleted. Goal: To prevent confirmation bias and promote objective, evidence-first reasoning in forensic analysis.

Answer 113

Review of the Cognitive Interview (CI) technique, highlighting both its potential and the methodological issues surrounding its use and evaluation.

Answer 114

• Mental Context Reinstatement: Most effective on its own. Milne (1997) found it elicited as much information as the full CI. • Report Everything: Encourages comprehensive recall but lacks strong individual evidence. • Change Perspective: May confuse witnesses or lead to fabrication. Often avoided by police. • Change Temporal Order: Mixed findings. Some studies (e.g., Geiselman & Callot, 1990) found benefit from recalling in forward and then reverse order.

Answer 115

• Standard Interview: Too variable and unreliable as a comparison. • Guided Memory Interview (GMI): Shares similarities with CI (e.g., context reinstatement) and is better for isolating effects of specific components. • Structured Interview (SI): Emphasizes rapport, narrative recall, and good questioning without cognitive techniques. Seen as a good control for evaluating the unique contribution of cognitive components in the CI.

Answer 116

Reid developed the Reid Technique, a widely used and controversial police interrogation method in the U.S., outlined in their handbook Criminal Interrogation and Confessions (1962). The technique is accusatory and guilt-presumptive, designed to elicit confessions from suspects believed to be guilty.

Answer 117

• Interview: Non-accusatory, information-gathering, question-and-answer format, aimed at assessing truthfulness. • Interrogation: Accusatory, monologue-based, seeks a confession, discourages denials, and uses persuasive tactics.

Answer 118

The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation: 1. Positive Confrontation – Presenting the suspect with a confident assertion of their guilt. 2. Theme Development – Offering moral justifications or excuses for the crime. 3. Handling Denials – Blocking or discouraging the suspect from denying the accusation. 4. Overcoming Objections – Acknowledging but reframing objections to suggest guilt. 5. Procurement and Retention of Attention – Re-engaging a withdrawn or passive suspect to prevent resistance. 6. Handling the Suspect’s Passive Mood – Using sympathy and supportive gestures when the suspect appears defeated. 7. Presenting an Alternative Question – Offering two explanations for the crime, both implying guilt but one being more socially acceptable. 8. Getting an Oral Confession – Encouraging the suspect to describe the crime in detail. 9. Converting the Confession – Recording the confession in writing, audio, or video, signed in front of witnesses.

Answer 119

Criticisms: • Risks of coerced compliant false confessions—suspects confessing to escape interrogation stress. • The assumption that only guilty suspects reach step four is highly flawed. • Notably criticized by Gísli Guðjónsson, who documented false confessions in major cases (e.g., Birmingham Six).

Answer 120

Gudjonsson identified four key factors that increase the risk of false confessions: 1. Vulnerable suspects – such as the young, elderly, mentally ill, or those with low IQs. 2. Arrest conditions – sudden, forceful arrests or long/night-time interrogations. 3. Mental/physical state – stress, illness, or intoxication reduces reliability. 4. Interrogation tactics – coercive or leading questions can cause false confessions. He also created the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS) to measure how easily a person may be influenced. In the UK, PACE (1984) requires interviews to be recorded and vulnerable suspects to have an appropriate adult present. However, these safeguards are not always properly applied.

Answer 121

• Aim: To test how accurately police officers can detect lies during suspect interviews. • Method: Field experiment using 99 Kent police officers who watched real interview clips and judged if suspects were lying or telling the truth. • Results: • Average lie detection accuracy: 66.2% • Average truth detection accuracy: 63.6% • Both above chance (50%) • More experience = slightly better accuracy • Most used cues: gaze, movement, vagueness, contradictions, and fidgeting • Conclusion: • Police officers perform better than chance and possibly better than the general public. • Experience improves lie detection. • Accurate detectors focus on story content, not stereotypes like fidgeting.

Answer 122

• Purpose: Developed in the UK to prevent false confessions from accusatory interviews. Suitable for interviewing victims, witnesses, and suspects. • Approach: Non-accusatory and evidence-based, focusing on consistency and open dialogue to reveal deception. • PEACE stands for: • P – Preparation and Planning: Research the case, plan objectives, and address any practical interview issues. • E – Engage and Explain: Build rapport and explain the interview process to the interviewee. • A – Account, Clarify, Challenge: Let the person tell their story, clarify details, and challenge inconsistencies gently. • C – Closure: End the interview professionally, keeping communication lines open. • E – Evaluation: Review the interview to check for completeness and unresolved issues. Conclusion: The PEACE model is ethical, effective, and reduces the risk of false confessions.

Answer 123

Previous research shows that people form impressions based on accents, with standard accents viewed more positively (e.g., as more competent or intelligent). In legal settings, Seggie (1983) found that guilt attributions varied based on accent and crime type.

Answer 124

1. A suspect with a Brummie accent would be rated as more guilty than one with a standard British accent. 2. Race and type of crime (blue vs. white collar) would interact with accent to influence guilt attribution.

Answer 125

119 white university students (24 male, 95 female, average age 25.2); all from outside Birmingham.

Answer 126

1) Participants listened to a 2-minute taped police interview with a suspect who either had a Brummie or standard accent. 2) The suspect was described as black or white and accused of either armed robbery (blue collar) or cheque fraud (white collar). 3) Participants rated the suspect’s guilt on a 7-point scale.

Answer 127

• Accent significantly influences perceptions of guilt. • The study supports previous findings (e.g., Seggie) that social biases (accent, race, crime type) can affect legal judgments. • Low external validity – real legal decisions involve more complex evidence than the study provided.

Answer 128

To investigate how the confidence level of an eyewitness affects jurors’ decisions in a trial setting.

Answer 129

Undergraduate students and experienced jurors.

Answer 130

In a videotaped mock robbery trial, the key female eyewitness expressed either 80% or 100% confidence in her identification of the suspect (independent variable). Dependent Variable: Percentage of guilty verdicts.

Answer 131

• 80% confidence: 60% guilty verdicts. • 100% confidence: 67% guilty verdicts. • Conclusion: Higher eyewitness confidence increased the likelihood of a guilty verdict. • However, even at 100% confidence, 33% of jurors still voted not guilty, showing that confidence is influential but not the sole factor in juror decision-making.

Answer 132

Aim: To examine how a defendant’s physical attractiveness influences jurors’ sentencing decisions, and whether the type of crime affects this relationship. ⸻ Method • Design: Laboratory experiment. • Participants: 120 college students (60 male, 60 female), randomly assigned to conditions. • Independent Variables: • Type of crime: Burglary (beauty irrelevant) vs. Swindling (beauty could be used manipulatively). • Defendant’s attractiveness: Attractive, Unattractive, or No info (control). • Procedure: Participants read a description of a female defendant strongly implied to be guilty and recommended a prison sentence (1–15 years). ⸻ Results • Attractive defendant + swindling: Longest mean sentence (5.45 years). • Attractive defendant + burglary: Shortest mean sentence (2.8 years). • Other conditions fell in between. • Attractive defendants were treated more leniently unless their attractiveness was perceived as used to commit the crime (e.g. swindling). ⸻ Conclusion • Jurors are influenced by physical attractiveness but this effect depends on how relevant beauty is to the crime. • Attractive people are generally seen as less dangerous, but if they are seen as using their beauty manipulatively, they may be judged more harshly—described as “beautiful but dangerous.” ⸻ Supporting Evidence A meta-analysis by Mazzella & Feingold (1994) of 80 studies confirmed that mock jurors are generally more lenient toward attractive defendants, especially in sentencing decisions.

Answer 133

Aim: To test whether jurors are more persuaded by evidence presented in story order (chronological sequence of events) rather than witness order (order of witnesses chosen for persuasive impact). ⸻ Method • Participants: Asked to act as jurors in a mock murder trial. • Design: The order of evidence was manipulated by the prosecution and defence: • Story order: Events presented in the actual sequence they occurred. • Witness order: Witnesses presented in an order thought to be most persuasive. • Four experimental groups received different combinations of these orders. ⸻ Results (Guilty verdict rates): Group Prosecution Defence Guilty Verdict A Story Witness 78% B Witness Story 31% C Story Story 59% D Witness Witness 63% • Story order by the prosecution led to the highest conviction rates. • Story order by the defence reduced guilty verdicts significantly. ⸻ Conclusion • Story order is more persuasive than witness order. • Jurors find it easier to make decisions when evidence is presented in a coherent, chronological story. • The authors argue this explains why most criminal trials in the U.S. result in guilty verdicts—because prosecutors tend to use story order, while defence lawyers often don’t. ⸻ Implication • Lawyers should adopt a story-based approach when presenting evidence, as it aligns with how jurors naturally understand and recall information.

Answer 134

Key Findings: • 46% of participants failed to notice an unexpected event even when it occurred directly in their field of vision. • This phenomenon, known as inattentional blindness, shows that looking at something doesn’t guarantee seeing or processing it. ⸻ Relevance to the Courtroom • Barristers could use this research to challenge eyewitness testimony, arguing that a witness might not have truly seen a crime, even if they appeared to be looking at it (e.g. shown via CCTV). • Eyewitnesses may miss key events due to lack of attention, especially if distracted or not expecting the event. ⸻ Possible Defence of Eyewitness Testimony • A barrister could counter this argument by noting: • The event was noticed 54% of the time, so it is more often seen than missed. • Certain factors increase the likelihood of noticing an unexpected event: • Opaque environments (as in most real-world situations) improve visibility. • Similarity between the unexpected event and the attended task boosts detection. • Easier tasks result in better attention and higher detection rates. • Less unusual events are more likely to be noticed than bizarre ones. ⸻ Conclusion Simons and Chabris’ study highlights the limits of human attention and raises valid doubts about eyewitness reliability. However, the findings also offer ways to support reliable testimony, depending on the context in which the crime was observed. It shows that eyewitness testimony should be critically evaluated, not automatically accepted or dismissed.

Answer 135

To explore whether police foot patrols and community policing reduce crime, and how maintaining public order can impact both crime and fear of crime in urban areas.

Answer 136

1. Foot patrols don’t reduce crime rates directly but do reduce fear of crime and improve community confidence. 2. Visible disorder (e.g. loitering, public drinking) increases fear and leads to community withdrawal—even if serious crime hasn’t risen. 3. Maintaining order helps prevent crime from taking root; small signs of neglect (like broken windows) can escalate into serious problems. 4. Foot patrol officers are effective at managing local disorder through informal rules and familiarity with the community. 5. Modern policing had become too focused on arrests and crime stats, neglecting the role of preserving public order. 6. Police are essential to maintaining community order; citizen efforts help but can’t replace official authority. 7. Resources should target ‘tipping point’ areas—neighborhoods beginning to decline but still recoverable.

Answer 137

• Police must balance crime-fighting with community protection. • Foot patrols should be deployed strategically in “tipping point” neighborhoods—areas where disorder is growing but still reversible. • Public order must be restored to prevent the spiral into crime and urban decay. • While citizen-led initiatives (e.g. Guardian Angels, neighborhood watch) help, only police have the authority and visibility to maintain order effectively.

Answer 138

Crime occurs when three elements converge in time and space: 1. A motivated offender 2. A suitable target 3. The absence of a capable guardian This combination is known as the “chemistry for crime.” If any one element is missing, crime is less likely to occur.

Answer 139

• Post-WWII crime rise was explained by changes in routine activities—more people (especially women) working outside the home, more people living alone, and more time spent away (e.g., holidays)—which left homes and people more exposed to crime. • Most “capable guardians” are not police, but everyday people (e.g., family, neighbours) who provide informal supervision. • Target suitability is based on the acronym VIVA: • Value – How desirable the target is to the offender. • Inertia – How easy it is to move or steal the target. • Visibility – Whether the target is visible to offenders. • Access – How easily an offender can reach the target.

Answer 140

Routine Activity Theory explains crime as a result of everyday social patterns, not just offender motivation. Crime prevention should focus on reducing target suitability and increasing guardianship.

Answer 141

• Bratton’s strategy focused on tackling minor offences (e.g. fare evasion, graffiti) to restore public order—called the “quality of life” initiative. • Serious crime fell in New York, and the approach was widely credited with reducing crime and improving public confidence. • However, the drop in crime may also be due to increased police numbers and other policies. • Evidence on effectiveness is mixed, and the approach has faced criticism for harming police-community relations, especially due to aggressive tactics like stop-and-search.

Answer 142

Brown (1995) studied the impact of CCTV in three UK cities: Birmingham, Newcastle, and Kings Lynn. By comparing crime data before and after CCTV installation, Brown found significant reductions in crime: • Burglaries in Newcastle dropped by 56% • Criminal damage fell by 34% Conclusion: CCTV was effective in reducing antisocial behaviour and crime, especially in busy public areas where large groups gather.

Answer 143

Ernest-Jones et al. (2011) studied whether images of eyes influence littering behaviour in a university cafeteria. Key Findings: • Posters with eye images reduced littering by 50% compared to posters with flowers. • This effect occurred regardless of the poster’s message, suggesting the eyes worked by creating a sense of being watched, not by reinforcing instructions. • The effect was stronger when the café was less crowded, indicating subtle observation cues work best when people feel more individually visible. Conclusion: Images of eyes can significantly encourage cooperative behaviour by triggering a psychological feeling of surveillance.

Answer 144

To test whether brutality in prisons is caused by the personalities of guards and prisoners (dispositional hypothesis) or by the prison environment itself (situational hypothesis).

Answer 145

24 psychologically healthy male college students randomly assigned to be guards or prisoners.

Answer 146

• Setting: A simulated prison built in Stanford University’s basement. • Procedure: Participants were arrested by real police, stripped of identity (e.g. numbered uniforms, chains), and subjected to strict prison routines. Guards were given authority but no specific training or use of physical force. • The study was planned for 14 days but was stopped after 6 days due to extreme reactions.

Answer 147

• Guards quickly became abusive, issuing commands and using psychological intimidation. • Prisoners became passive and distressed; 5 had to be released early due to severe emotional breakdowns. • Many prisoners accepted their roles so completely that they refused parole even when it meant forfeiting money.

Answer 148

• The study demonstrated how powerful situational forces and assigned social roles can override personal values, leading to cruel or submissive behaviour. • Zimbardo described this effect on guards as “pathology of power”, and explained it through deindividuation—a loss of self-awareness and responsibility due to group identity and anonymity. • Prisoners’ deterioration was linked to loss of identity, learned helplessness, and emasculation.

Answer 149

The brutal conditions of real prisons may arise not from the personalities of guards or prisoners, but from the structure and dynamics of the prison environment itself.

Answer 150

Aim: To assess whether planned employment programmes help reduce recidivism among offenders on conditional release (parole). Method: • Sample: 23,525 Canadian offenders released between 1998–2005 (95% male, 5% female). • Design: Quasi-experiment using content analysis of national offender data. • Offenders were matched on variables such as gender, risk level, sentence length, and substance use. • Compared two groups: those who participated in an employment programme and those who did not. Programme Features: • Job search skills training • Psychometric assessments • On-the-job placements Key Findings: • 70% of offenders in the employment programme completed parole successfully, compared to 55% of unemployed offenders. • Among those who did return to prison: • Programme participants took a median of 37 months to reoffend. • Unemployed offenders returned in just 11 months on average. Conclusion: • Planned employment significantly reduces reoffending and helps offenders reintegrate into society. • The study provides psychological evidence that employment-based programmes are an effective rehabilitation strategy, and the authors recommend expanding such opportunities for prisoners.

Answer 151

Restorative Justice brings victims and offenders together in a voluntary, structured meeting to discuss the impact of a crime and agree on how the offender can make amends. • It runs alongside the legal system; offenders are still punished by law. • Victims gain a sense of control, closure, and understanding. • Offenders often apologise and agree to a contract to repair the harm (e.g. community service or rehab). • Meetings are managed by a trained facilitator and involve supporters from both sides. • The process can help reduce reoffending and promote rehabilitation.

Answer 152

Rationale: Anger is believed to be a key cause of violent crime. If offenders can recognise and control their anger, violent behaviour may be reduced both in prison and after release. Anger Management Approach: Based on cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT), it helps offenders: 1. Recognise anger triggers and internal cues (e.g. feeling ignored or physical signs like increased heart rate). 2. Learn coping skills (e.g. relaxation techniques, counting to ten, walking away). 3. Practice new behaviours through role play, aiming for these to become automatic responses. CALM Programme (UK): • Main anger management course in prisons, especially for male offenders. • Involves 24 two-hour sessions. • Focuses on changing thinking patterns, improving communication, and preventing relapse. • Helps offenders manage anger without resorting to violence.

Answer 153

Community sentences are non-custodial punishments for offenders, combining punishment with rehabilitation through unpaid work, treatment, or behavioural programmes. • Aimed at reducing reoffending, especially for first-time or low-risk offenders. • Can include up to 13 requirements, such as curfews, drug/alcohol treatment, or exclusion zones. • More effective and cost-efficient than short prison sentences. • Criticised as too lenient and may unintentionally draw minor offenders deeper into the justice system (net widening).

Unit 3: Flashcards

(181 cards)