Unit 3 AOS 1

Question 1

main functions of the nervous system

Answer 1

1.Receive info (what we sense and feel)
2.Process info (what we think)
3.Coordinate a response to info (what we should do)

Question 2

what is a neuron

Answer 2

Basic cell of the nervous system responsible for the reception and transmission of information throughout the nervous system

Question 3

types of neurons and their definition

Answer 3

Motor neurons- take infofrom CNS to senses

Sensory neurons- take info from the senses to CNS

Interneurons(AKA relay/connectorneuron)- only in the CNS and allow neurons to communicate to each other E.g. motor and sensory neurons
3.

Question 4

what is the central nervous system and its main function

Answer 4

is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.

Main function: to process info received from the body’s internal & external environments and to activate appropriate responses

Question 5

what is the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Answer 5

The entire network of nerves located outside the CNS that transmits sensory info to and motor info from the CNS

The spinal cord connects the brain to the PNS

Question 6

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

Answer 6

Controls skeletal muscle activity via connecting skeletal muscles to the CNS
Sensory information: afferent (incoming information)
Motor information: efferent (outgoing information)
Controls voluntary movement

Question 7

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Answer 7

Responsible for the automatic processes that keep your body alive (e.g. breathing, heart beat &digestion) and actively involved in reaction to extreme emotions, such as fear, anger or nervousness.
Involuntary and self regulating
Keeps us alive: automatically!

Question 8

division of the ans The sympathetic nervous system:

Answer 8

arouses the body when we experience an extreme emotion or a threat to enhance survival through an immediate response

• Fight or Flight or Freeze response

Question 9

division of the ans The parasympathetic nervous system

Answer 9

Maintains and regulates homeostasis as well as calms or restores the body to its normal state of functioning after an extreme emotion or threat subsides

Rest and Digest
Works slower than the sympathetic NS

Question 10

division of the ans The enteric nervous system

Answer 10

embedded within the walls of the gastrointestinal (digestive) tract and dedicated to its functioning

Question 11

Conscious response:

Answer 11

A reaction to a sensory stimulus that involves awareness; compared with unconscious response.
Voluntary, intentional, goal-directed, largely controllable

Question 12

Unconscious response:

Answer 12

A reaction to a sensory stimulus that does not involve awareness; compared with conscious response.
Involuntary, unintentional, automatic

Question 13

Spinal Reflexes

Answer 13

An unconscious, involuntary response to certain stimuli, initiated within the spinal cord and controlled solely by neural circuits; also called reflex arc

Question 14

Neurotransmitter:

Answer 14

A chemical substance produced by a neuron* that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue

Question 15

Neural Synapse:

Answer 15

The site of communication between adjacent neurons

Question 16

Synaptic gap:

Answer 16

The tiny space between the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of a postsynaptic neuron.

Question 17

Role of neurotransmitters

Answer 17

Excitatory effectwhich stimulate or activate postsynaptic neurons to perform their functions

Inhibitory effectwhich block or prevent postsynaptic neurons from firing.

Question 18

Glutamate (Glu):

Answer 18

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter for information transmission throughout the brain; plays crucial roles in the growth and strengthening of synaptic connections during learning and memory formation.

Question 19

Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA):

Answer 19

is the primaryinhibitoryneurotransmitter in the CNS. It maintains neurotransmission at optimal levels by making postsynaptic (‘receiving’) neurons less likely to fire.

Question 20

Neuromodulators:

Answer 20

a neurotransmitter that can influence the effects of other neurotransmitters; also calledmodulator neurotransmitter

Question 21

dopamine

Answer 21

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator with multiple functions depending on where it acts
- include roles in coordinating movement, learning and behaviours that are rewarding

Question 22

serotonin

Answer 22

serotonin a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator with multiple functions depending on where it acts
- functions include emotional processing, mood, and sleep onset

Question 23

what is the Effects on brain activity of dopamine

Answer 23

excitatory effect at one location or an inhibitory effect at another, depending on the type of receptors that are present.

Question 24

what is the Effects on brain activity of seretonin

Answer 24

inhibitory effects

Question 25

Synaptic plasticity:

Answer 25

The ability of a synapse to change over time through use or disuse. - It is also the biological basis of learning and memory.

Question 26

Donald Hebb theory

Answer 26

when neurotransmitter is repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap, presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time. When a presynaptic and a postsynaptic neuron are active at the same time, this changes the structure or chemistry of the synapse, strengthening the connections between these two neurons at the synapse. When the synaptic connection is strengthened, this makes them more likely to fire together again and to transmit their signals more forcibly and efficiently in the future.

Question 27

three ways Changes in synaptic connections occur in what 3 ways? (neural plasticity)

Answer 27

Sprouting, rerouting, pruning

Question 28

Sprouting:

Answer 28

new pathways form Growth of nerve endings on axons or dendrites enables new links to be made

Question 29

Rerouting:

Answer 29

pathways go around Entirely new neural pathways are formed

Question 30

Pruning:

Answer 30

Use it or lose it Synapses not frequently used decay and disappear

Question 31

Long term potentiation (LTP)

Answer 31

The long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections, resulting in enhanced or more effective neurotransmission across the synapse.

Question 32

Long term depression

Answer 32

The long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic connections and transmission and neuronal response

Question 33

stress

Answer 33

a state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors, that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resources to cope

Question 34

Stressor:

Answer 34

any stimulus that produces stress.

Question 35

Internal stressor: 

Answer 35

originates within the individual

Question 36

External stressor:

Answer 36

 originates outside the individual from situations and events in the environment

Question 37

Acute stress:

Answer 37

stress that produces a high level of arousal over a short period of time.

Question 38

Chronic stress:

Answer 38

high level of arousal that persist over a long period of time and results in a number of physiological and psychological responses which may be short term or long lasting.

Question 39

Two models for describing and explaining physiological responses to a stressor are:

Answer 39

fight–flight–freeze response  General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model

Question 40

The fight–or-flight–or-freeze response 

Answer 40

is an involuntary, physical response produced by the sympathetic NS to a sudden and immediate threat (or stressor) in readiness to: fight — confront and fight off the threat flight — escape by running away to safety freeze — avoid detection by keeping still and silent

Question 41

fight or flight reactions

Answer 41

Part 1: Energise. The brain–body pathway that activates fight–flight is called the sympathetic adreno-medullary system (SAM). Very fast! Part 2: Maintain. The HPA axis is activated if a stressor persists, resulting in the release of cortisol. Slower to start, longer lasting

Question 42

freze reactions

Answer 42

Reaction that results in an organism being in a physiological state involving high arousal of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, resulting in a condition characterised by both energy conservation and a mobilised state ready for action.

Question 43

Cortisol

Answer 43

A hormone secreted from the adrenal cortex to primarily energise the body in response to a stressor (involved in both acute & chronic stress)

Question 44

Cortisol and chronic stress

Answer 44

Prolonged high-level cortisol can cause a rage of physiological issues as shown, as well as Reduced cognitive performance (issues with learning and memory) Increased susceptibility to and exacerbation of symptoms of mental disorders

Question 45

Gut-brain axis (GBA)

Answer 45

The gut-brain axis is a bidirectional (two way) , multifaceted communication link between the CNS and ENS. It involves indirect and direct pathways b/w cognitive and emotional areas in the brain with the gut

Question 46

Structures of the GBA

Answer 46

CNS: Brain and spinal cord Peripheral – Autonomic NS: Sympathetic, parasympathetic and Enteric nervous systems Vagus nerve (links brain to gut) Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Question 47

Vagus nerve

Answer 47

The vagus nerve regulates and communicates with the enteric nervous system and facilitates the bidirectional communication of the GBA The vagus nerve is part of the parasympathetic nervous system and controls rest and digest functions

Question 48

Gut microbiota

Answer 48

Microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and fungi) present in the digestive tract

Question 49

Microbiome

Answer 49

is the total population of microbiota

Question 50

Healthy gut microbiome:

Answer 50

high number of diverse species that are stable and resistant to significant changes over time. Helps the individual cope with stress

Question 51

Microbiota purpose

Answer 51

Digest food Produce and release neurotransmitters: GABA Serotonin (modulator) Dopamine (modulator)

Question 52

Improving the microbiome

Answer 52

Probiotic therapy ('good' strains of bacteria) e.g yakult Faecal transplants Exercise Diet (whole fibrous foods, fermented foods and nutritional fats e.g. fish and nuts)

Question 53

what is Explanatory Power

Answer 53

The ability of a theory/model to explain the subject matter effectively. If a model has a greater explanatory power it means the model has/is: More observations accounted for Makes fewer assumptions More falsifiable – can be researched to be proven wrong More details of cause-and-effect relationships are provided

Question 54

what is Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) as a biological model of stress

Answer 54

3 stage physiological response to non-specific stressors involving alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion phases.

Question 54

Stage 2: Resistance GAS

Answer 54

The body's ability to combat stressors rises above normal by maximising resources and adapting to changes. Unnecessary physiological processes are shut down Cortisol continues to be released

Question 54

Stage 1: Alarm reaction GAS

Answer 54

Alarm reaction: The stage of initial awareness of a stressor leading to a temporary shock before rebounding (countershock) Occurs in two phases (shock and counter shock)

Question 54

Indicators of the Resistance stage

Answer 54

Feelings of fear, anger, sadness, worry, numbness, or frustration Irritability Changes in appetite, energy, desires, and interests Stomach problems Headaches Body pains or skin rashes Sleeplessness or nightmares Trouble concentrating or making decisions

Question 54

phase 1 shock in alarm reaction GAS

Answer 54

Ability to deal with the stressor falls below its normal levels Physiological reactions include: Decrease in body temp, blood pressure, muscle tone and fluid from body tissues

Question 54

Indicators of the Exhaustion stage

Answer 54

Fatigue and sleep disturbances Severe loss of concentration Emotional dysregulation (anxiety attacks, irritability, depression, jumpiness, crying spells) Organ damage due to high blood pressure and gastrointestinal problems

Question 55

phase 1 countershock in alarm reaction GAS

Answer 55

The sympathetic nervous system is activated and the body's resistance to the stressor increases. Fight or flight reaction Stress hormones (adrenaline, nor adrenaline, cortisol etc) are released into the blood stream

Question 55

Stage 3: Exhaustion GAS

Answer 55

Only occurs if the stressor is not dealt with successfully in stage 1 or 2 Body can no longer sustain resistance nor deal with the effects of the stressor. It becomes weak and vulnerable to both physical and mental illness. Stress hormones have been depleted

Question 55

strengths of the GAS model

Answer 55

The GAS recognises a predictable pattern of physiological responses associated with distinct stages and substages, which can be measured in individuals. The GAS recognises the relationship between chronic stress and illness. The GAS provides objective, empirical information about the biological processes involved in the stress response.

Question 55

limitations of the GAS model

Answer 55

The GAS is based on research that was conducted on rats, reducing the generalisability of the model to the human population. The GAS only focuses on the biological aspects of stress. It ignores the importance of psychological factors, including emotion and cognition, in the stress response. The GAS prescribes a uniform model that is the same for every individual in response to all stressors. Therefore, it fails to recognise the subjective nature of the stress response, meaning that different people respond to different stressors in unique ways.

Question 55

Transactional model of stress and coping Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman

Answer 55

The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus & Folkman) explains stress as a psychological process where an individual first engages in primary appraisal (assessing whether an event is stressful) and then secondary appraisal (determining their ability to cope).

Question 56

Primary appraisal in Transactional model of stress and coping

Answer 56

Evaluation or judgement about the significance of the situation The outcome of the primary appraisal is a decision about whether the situation is:   Irrelevant benign-positive (expected to have a good/rewarding impact) Stressful (expected to have a negative impact) If determined stressful it leads to a further appraisal of the specific conditions of the stressor – deciding if it is harmful, threatening and/or challenging

Question 56

Secondary appraisalin Transactional model of stress and coping

Answer 56

We evaluate our coping options, resources and options for dealing with the stressful situation. Coping options can be internal (e.g strength & determination) or external (e.g. money, support from family & friends). Coping demands > coping resources = stress response

Question 56

explanatory powers of the transactional model of stress and coping (strengths and weaknesses

Answer 56

STRENGTHS * Allows one to track the subjective stress response of an individual. * Allows for consideration of cognitive processes within the stress response, which the biological models do not take into account. * Human subjects were used as a source of data during the creation of the model. * Helps to explain why the same stressor may have different effects on different people. * Coping stage (emotion and problem focused strategies) provides suggestions for dealing with a stressor. LIMITATIONS Some argue that the stages of primary and secondary appraisal can occur simultaneously, and so ordering them chronologically may not always be reflective of the true stress response. * Individuals are not necessarily aware of why they feel certain kinds of stress, as suggested by primary appraisal. * Does not include biological processes of stress, when in practice stress is a combination of both biological and psychological factors. * Cannot easily be tested by research, as human subjects are not necessarily consciously aware at all stages of appraisal, and therefore there is a lack of empirical evidence to support the model.

Question 57

coping definition

Answer 57

the process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal or external stressors that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of a person.

Question 58

Context-specific effectiveness (coping strategies)

Answer 58

When there is a match between the coping strategy and the stressful situation it is more likely to be successful

Question 59

Coping flexibility

Answer 59

The ability to effectively modify or adjust one’s coping strategies according to the demands of different stressful situations. Includes the abilities to: - Recognise if a strategy is appropriate to the situation - Determine if strategy used is ineffective - Discontinue ineffective strategy and implement an alternative strategy when required.

Question 60

High coping flexibility

Answer 60

Adjust their coping strategies readily if ineffective Use a variety of context specific effective strategies More likely to achieve positive outcomes

Question 61

Low coping flexibility

Answer 61

Use the same type of strategies across different situations and persistent use of ineffective ones

Question 62

Approach coping strategies

Answer 62

Involve efforts to confront the stressor and deal directly with it and its effects

Question 63

Avoidance coping strategies

Answer 63

Involve efforts that evade a stressor and deal indirectly with it and its effects.