Unit 3 AOS 2

Question 1

Learning

Answer 1

A permanent change in behaviour that occurs because of experience.

Learning can be:
intentional (eg. taking lessons)
unintentional (eg. learning a song)
active (reciting times tables)
passive (eg. knowing what gender the next Kardashian baby will be)

Question 2

approaches to learning

Answer 2

classical conditioning
operant conditioning
observational learning
aboriginal toress strait islander peoples

Question 3

Conditioning:

Answer 3

the process of learning associations between a stimulus (or event) in the environment and a behavioural response.

classical conditoning
operant conditioning

Question 4

Classical conditioning

Answer 4

Ivan Pavlov
A 3-phase learning process (before/during/after conditioning) that results in the involuntary association between a neutral and unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

Question 5

Key elements of CC

Answer 5

Neutral stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)

Question 6

Neutral stimulus

Answer 6

item/object/action that fails to produce a response prior to being conditioned

Eg. in Pavlov’s dogs, NS= the bell

Question 7

Unconditioned stimulus

Answer 7

any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally occurring automatic response.
Eg. in Pavlov’s dogs, UCS = the food

Question 8

unconditioned response

Answer 8

the response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is presented.
Eg. in Pavlov’s dogs, UCR = salivation

Question 9

conditioned stimulus

Answer 9

the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the unconditioned response on its own.
Eg. in Pavlov’s dogs, UCS (dog food) + CS (bell)

Question 10

conditioned response

Answer 10

the learned response that has been learned and produced by the condition stimulus (CS)
Eg. in Pavlov’s dogs, CS (bell) = CR (salivating)

The need for the presence of food to cause the salivating is no longer needed

Question 11

Operant conditioning

Answer 11

BF skinner
A type of learning that occurs where the consequences of the behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future; occurring over three phases
ancedent- behaviour- consequence

Question 12

Operant:

Answer 12

a response (or set or responses) that occurs (operates) on the environment to produce some kind of effect.

Question 13

Phase 1: Antecedent
- operant conditioning

Answer 13

Stimulus that occurs before the behaviour and signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences the occurrence of the behaviour.

Question 14

phase 2 operant conditioning
behaviour

Answer 14

The observable and voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent stimulus and effect the environment

Question 15

phase 3 operant conditioning
consequences

Answer 15

The environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of that behaviour.

Reinforcement (rewards) strengthens the behaviour making it more likely to occur again
Punishment weakens the behaviour making it less likely to occur again

Question 16

reinforcement

Answer 16

The process by which a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that follows it.

Question 17

Positive reinforcement

Answer 17

Positive reinforcement: Adding/giving or applying a desirable/pleasant stimulus. Doing so strengthens or increases the behaviour in the future.

Question 18

negative reinforcement

Answer 18

Taking away/removing/eliminating an undesirable/unpleasant stimulus. Doing so strengthens or increases the behaviour in the future.

Question 19

Punishment

Answer 19

The process by which a stimulus weakens or decreases the frequency or likelihood of a response that follows it.

Question 20

positive punishment

Answer 20

Adding/giving or applying an undesirable/negative stimulus. Doing so weakens or decreases a behaviour from occurring again.

Question 21

negative punishment

Answer 21

Taking away/removing/eliminating a desirable/enjoyable stimulus. Doing so weakens or decreases a behaviour from occurring again.
List two examples

Question 22

observational learning

Answer 22

observational learning acquisition of information, skills or behaviour through watching the performance of others, either directly or indirectly; involves a sequence of processes called attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and reinforcement; also called modelling

Question 23

What are five components required for observational learning to occur

Answer 23

Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation
Reinforcement

Question 24

Model in observational learning

Answer 24

who or what is being observed.
Live model
Symbolic model

Question 25

attention

Answer 25

Learner must pay attention to the model's behaviour and consequences The greater the similarity between the learner and the model the more likely they are to follow their example

Question 26

retention

Answer 26

Ability to remember the model's behaviour when needed

Question 27

reproduction

Answer 27

Attempt to behave in the same manner that has been observed The learner must be able to: put into practice what was observed have the potential to be competent enough to develop the skills necessary to imitate the behaviour

Question 28

motivation

Answer 28

Learner must have the desire to reproduce what was observed, reinforcement can influence this desire

Question 29

reinforcement

Answer 29

As with behavioural theories, if the observed behaviour is reinforced it increases the likelihood of reproduction External reinforcement: Learning by consequences Internal reinforcement: vicariously experiencing the reinforcement Self-reinforcement: positive feelings associated with meeting the standard of performance we set for ourselves

Question 30

Strengths and limitations of the observational learning

Answer 30

+ Explains differences in an individuals behaviour and learning process + Allows for different ways of learning (direct/indirect) + Provides insight into adapatability, behaving suitably for a specific environment + Lifelong learning Does not account for the amount of control the individual has over their own behaviour e.g. why don't we reproduce all observed behaviours, especially negative ones Does not recognised the importance of accountability, placing the weight of action determination on the environment Disregards the influence of biological factors e.g. hormones Fails to account for behaviours where there is no apparent role model for the observer to emulate

Question 31

what is memory

Answer 31

The processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning ** - Active processing system that encodes, stores and recovers information when required** All three processes are required and if any is not included, the memory will not from

Question 32

Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model

Answer 32

a representation and explanation of memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory, differing in function, capacity and duration

Question 33

Sensory Memory

Answer 33

Entry point of memory where incoming sensory information is stored for a brief period. What is not paid attention to is lost What is given attention is transferred to Short term memory

Question 34

sensory memory- iconic

Answer 34

Brief sensory memory for incoming visual information Duration: 1/3 of a second Purpose: continuity (e.g. while blinking the world doesn't disappear)

Question 35

sensory memory- echoic

Answer 35

The brief sensory memory for incoming auditory information. Duration: 3-4 seconds Purpose: to be able to select what has been heard for further processing, e.g. speech

Question 36

Short-Term memory (STM)

Answer 36

Receives information from sensory memory and transfers information to and from LTM Maintains information in conscious awareness for immediate use capacity - 7 ± 2 pieces of information duration Recall begins to decline after approximately 12 seconds Almost all info disappears after 18 seconds if it has not been renewed by rehearsal

Question 37

what are the two types of STM information loss

Answer 37

decay displacement

Question 38

decay

Answer 38

information not being used and renewed fades away with the passage of time eg.forgetting what you wanted to say while waiting for your turn in a conversation

Question 39

displacement

Answer 39

information is pushed out by new information eg. forgetting someone's name after they've been introduced to you because you are thinking about what you want to say next

Question 40

STM functions as working memory

Answer 40

emphasises the active processing and use of information that occurs in the STM encompasses the idea that info may be retrieved from the LTM for active use allows space for LTM and sensory memory to be combined info no longer required is either encoded into LTM or discarded via decay/displacement

Question 41

chunking

Answer 41

the grouping or ‘packing’ of separate bits of info into a larger single unit or ‘chunk’ of info Only similar information can be chunked together

Question 42

Long-term memory (LTM)

Answer 42

the relatively permanent memory system that has potentially unlimited capacity and duration (life-long) LTM is inactive and we have no conscious awareness until it is needed or retrieved

Question 43

LTM is categorised into two main types

Answer 43

explicit implicit

Question 44

Explicit memory

Answer 44

LTM that can be consciously retried and stated (memory with awareness)

Question 45

what are the two types of explicit memory

Answer 45

episodic semantic

Question 46

episodic memory

Answer 46

explicit LTM of personally experienced events (what) associated with a particular time (when) and place (where) eg. For example, the memory of falling off your new bicycle (what) on your birthday (when) and skinning your knee on your driveway (where) is an episodic memory.

Question 47

semantic memory

Answer 47

explicit LTM of facts and knowledge about the world including rules and meanings of concepts eg. facts and knowledge, the meaning of words, rules, concepts

Question 48

Implicit memory

Answer 48

LTM that does not require conscious effort or intentional retrieval (memory without awareness)

Question 49

what are the two subgroups of implicit memory

Answer 49

Procedural memory classically conditioned responses

Question 50

procedural memory

Answer 50

implicit LTM for the skills involved in particular tasks (how to do something)

Question 51

Classically conditioned memory

Answer 51

implicit LTM of a conditioned response to a conditional stimulus acquired through classical conditioning

Question 52

Hippocampus

Answer 52

The hippocampus is crucial in the formation and encoding of new semantic and episodic memories via consolidation and reconsolidation Integrates new information with existing information to form networks of memories Formation of the explicit memory component of an emotional event Spatial memory – location of objects in space

Question 53

Consolidation:

Answer 53

neurobiological process of making a newly formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience.

Question 54

Amygdala

Answer 54

Primarily for processing and regulating emotional reactions, particularly fear, anger/aggression Emotional arousal during encoding influences the strength of the LTM formed of that event Formation and consolidation of emotional memories through - influencing the hippocampus (explicit),   - classically conditioned fear responses (implicit)

Question 55

Flashbulb memory

Answer 55

Vivid, highly detailed and long-lasting memory of an event that is very surprising, consequential or emotionally arousing, often including details of their personal circumstances at the time of the even.

Question 56

Neocortex or cerebral cortex

Answer 56

Interacts with the hippocampus in the formation, consolidation, storage and retrieval of long-term explicit memories Storage of long-term explicit semantic and episodic memories typically occurs in the region they were first processed. Integrates various memory aspects for retrieval into our conscious awareness

Question 57

Basal Ganglia

Answer 57

Function: involved in the generation of voluntary movements and long-term implicit procedural memories involving motor skills

Question 58

Basal Ganglia: Habituation

Answer 58

learning is the process of growing accustomed to a situation or stimulus reliant on implicit memory.

Question 59

Cerebellum

Answer 59

Function: coordination of muscle movement, posture, balance etc. Involved in the encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories for motor skills (Long term storage of motor responses is in the neocortex) Long term storage of classically conditioned reflexes Involved in spatial memory; the implicit procedural aspect of navigation (e.g. coordinating movements) vs the explicit semantic component (e.g. internal visualisation of a map, see hippocampus)

Question 60

Autobiographical memory

Answer 60

Our personally experienced occurrences To retrieve our autobiographical events, we need to consciously and explicitly recall our episodic and semantic memories Supports our sense of self and identity through reconstruction.

Question 61

reconstruction

Answer 61

combining features and events from different locations in LTM to create a cohesive memory.

Question 62

imagined futures

Answer 62

The mental experience of events anticipated to occur Projecting yourself forwards in time to pre-experience an event that might happen to you (AKA mental time travel).

Question 63

Alzheimer's Disease

Answer 63

Neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills, and personality changes.

Question 64

Progression of Alzheimer's Disease

Answer 64

Cortical areas tend to be damaged first, which disrupts STM. The hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe areas are damaged, LTM is increasingly impaired Explicit episodic and semantic memories are primarily affected. Implicit memories tend to remain intact or are less severely affected Continues to spread, leading to extensive brain shrinkage and damage and severe learning impairment and memory loss

Question 65

Alzheimer's effect on memory

Answer 65

The hippocampus is one of the first structures affected by atrophy; this means new explicit memories cannot be encoded and consolidated, resulting in anterograde amnesia The loss of neurons then spreads to the cerebral cortex, resulting in the loss of stored explicit (including episodic, semantic and autobiographical) long-term memories (retrograde amnesia) as well as problems with attention and changes to personality and emotions.

Question 66

Aphantasia

Answer 66

Neurocognitive phenomenon where visual imagery is either entirely absent, or markedly impaired

Question 67

Those with aphantasia can/ may find difficult to

Answer 67

can Describe an object List facts about an object Recall and explain the concepts of an object See normally Dream (with visual imagery) find difficult Relive autobiographical events, e.g. provide a detailed eyewitness account Imagine future events, which can make it a little harder to experience empathy or make accurate risk assessments Experience 'flashbacks', intrusive imagery or a fear response to a written stimulus Create false memories

Question 68

aphantasia forms

Answer 68

congenital (present from birth) acquired (present after brain injury or significant psychological event).

Question 69

aphantasia causes

Answer 69

Theorised causes: Areas of the brain involved in visual imagery, such as the visual cortex, may be underactive. Connections between the frontal lobe (decision making, attention, emotions) and the visual cortex may be underdeveloped. People with aphantasia do experience mental imagery (which is why they can dream) but cannot access the image in their conscious thoughts.

Question 70

Mnemonic

Answer 70

Any technique used to assist memory Use info already stored in LTM by forging a link between the new information to be remembered and information previously encoded. Act as a retrieval cue

Question 71

acronyms

Answer 71

pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a group of words.

Question 72

Acrostics

Answer 72

involve making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing sentences (or phrases) using the first letters of the information to be remembered.

Question 73

Method of Loci

Answer 73

a mnemonic device for which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations.

Question 74

Songlines

Answer 74

sometimes called a dreaming track, is a navigational route comprising a sequence of locations. It assists navigation, but it is more than that. The locations often include significant landscape features that incorporate vital information. In addition, at each location, a story, song, dance or ceremony is performed that is associated with that location.