Unit 3: Learning & Development Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
Cross-Sectional Studies
A
research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
2
Q
Longitudinal Studies
A
research that follows and retests the same people over time
3
Q
Development Psychology
A
is the branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan
4
Q
Nature vs. nurture
A
How does our genetic inheritance (our nature) interact with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our development?
5
Q
Stability vs. Change
A
Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?
6
Q
Continuous development
A
the perspective that development is a gradual, cumulative process, where changes are quantitative and occur steadily over time.
7
Q
Discontinuous Development
A
the perspective that development occurs in distinct stages, with qualitative differences in behavior and cognition emerging at each stage
8
Q
Lifespan development
A
development throughout an individual’s entire life, from birth to death, focusing on the changes and consistencies in physical, cognitive, and social domains.
9
Q
Adolescence
A
The transitional period between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical, cognitive, and social development.
10
Q
Critical Periods
A
time during someone’s development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be the most readily acquired, and if not acquired by a certain time, it may be impossible to learn
11
Q
Developmental Milestone
A
A key skill or ability that most children reach at a particular age.
(ex. speaking,walking)
12
Q
Fine Motor Coordination
A
The ability to control small muscle movements.
(ex. grasping, writing)
13
Q
Gross Motor Coordination
A
the ability to control large muscle movements
(ex. crawling, jumping)
14
Q
Growth Spurt
A
A rapid increase in height and weight during puberty
15
Q
Imprinting
A
A process in which some animals form strong attachments to the first moving object they see
16
Q
Maturation
A
The natural, biological growth process that enables orderly changes in behavior without requiring external experience.
17
Q
Menarche
A
A female’s first menstrual period
(signals beginning of puberty in females)
-11yrs~
18
Q
Menopause
A
the natural end of menstruation and fertility in women
19
Q
Prenatal Influence
A
Factors affecting development before birth
(ex. maternal health, nutrition, environmental exposures)
20
Q
Primary Sex Characteristics
A
include the body structures that make reproduction reproduction possible
(ex.ovaries, testes)
21
Q
Puberty
A
The period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that prepare the body for reproduction
22
Q
Reflexes
A
Automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli
23
Q
Rooting Reflex
A
A newborn’s instinctive turn toward a touch on the cheek, helping them find a food source
24
Q
Secondary Sex Characteristics
A
Non-reproductive physical changes in puberty
(ex. deeper voice, body hair)
25
Sensitive Periods
specific timeframes in which children are more receptive to learning and acquiring certain skills
26
Spermarche
A male's first ejaculation
~13rs~
27
Teratogens
Harmful substances that can cause birth defects or developmental issues when exposure occurs during pregnancy
28
Visual Cliff
A psychological experiment that tests depth perception in infants
(uses a patterned surface and a perceived drop-off)
29
Gender
the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man and woman
30
Sex
your biological status defined by your chromosomes and anatomy
31
Sexual orientation
our enduring sexual attraction toward members of our own sex (homosexual) or the other sex (heterosexual).
32
Abstract Thinking
ability to think about ideas and concepts that are not physically present
(ex. hypothetical situations or moral dilemmas)
33
Accommodation
Adjusting or creating new schemas to incorporate new information that does not fit existing ones
34
Animism
The belief, that young inanimate objects have human-like qualities such as having feelings.
(com.in young children)
35
Assimilation
Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing them.
36
Concrete Operation Stage
Piaget's 3rd stage where children develop logical thinking about concrete events but struggle with abstract concepts. (7-11yrs)
37
Schemas (extra)
concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences
38
Conservation
The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement
(ex. tall 8oz cup vs. Wide 8oz cup)
39
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that increase with age.
40
Dementia
A decline in cognitive function, including memory loss and impaired reasoning
41
Egocentrism
In Piaget's preoperational stage, a child's inability to see a situation from another person's perspective
42
Fluid Intelligence
the ability to think quickly and solve new problems, independent of past knowledge
(usually declines w/ age)
43
Formal Operational Stage
Piaget's fourth stage where individuals develop the ability for abstract, logical and hypothetical thinking (12+ yrs)
44
Hypothetical thinking
ability to consider possibilities and reason through "what-if" scenarios,
45
Mental Symbols
Internal representations of objects, events or concepts that allow for thought without direct sensory experience
46
Object Permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight
47
Preoperational Stage
Piaget's second stage where children develop symbolic thought, language and imagination but lack logical reasoning. (2-7yrs).
48
Pretend Play
a type of play where children use imagination and symbolic thinking
(ex. use stick as a sword)
49
Puberty
the period of rapid physical and hormonal changes during adolescence -> sexual maturity.
50
Reversibility
the understanding that certain actions can be undone or reversed
(ex. adding or subtracting)
51
Scaffolding
A teaching method in which support is gradually removed as a learner gains independence
52
Sensorimotor Stage
Piaget's first stage where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions
(birth-2yrs)
53
Theory of Mind
ability to understand that others have their own thoughts, feelings, and perspectives, developing in early childhood
54
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky's concepts of the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance
55
Babbling
the stage in infant language development where babies produce repetitive, meaningless sounds
(ex. baba or dada)
[4-6months]
56
Cooing
Early stage of vocalization where infants produce vowel-like sounds as a form of pre-language communication
("oooh, ahhh")
(6-8 weeks)
57
Grammer
The system of rules in a language that enables communication which includes syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (meaning of words).
58
Language
A system of spoken, written or signed symbols that allow people to communicate thoughts, ideas and emotions
59
Morphemes
the smallest units of meaning in a language
60
One-Word Stage
the stage in language development when children begin using single words to represent entire thoughts
(ex. "milk" instead of
"I want milk")
61
Overgeneralization
the application of language rules too broadly,
(ex. "goed" instead of "went")
62
Phonemes
the smallest units of sound in a language
63
Semantics
aspects of language concerned with meaning
64
Syntax
the set of rules that dictate the structure of sentences
65
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage where toddlers use two-or three-word phrases that resemble telegrams, omitting smaller words but conveying meaning
(ex. "want cookie")
66
Attachment
the emotional bond between a child and their caregiver, which influences future social and emotional relationships.
67
Anxious Attachment
a form of insecure attachment where a child is overly dependent on the caregiver, often showing extreme distress when separated
68
Attachment Styles
Patterns of emotional bonds formed in early life that influence relationships, including secure, avoidant, anxious and disorganized attachment
69
Authoritarian Parenting
A strict parenting style characterized by high demands, low warmth and little flexibility, often resulting in obedience but lower social competence
70
Authoritative Parenting
A balanced parenting style with high expectations, warmth and responsiveness often leading to positive child outcomes
71
Avoidant Attachment
A form of insecure attachment where a child shows little distress when separated from their caregiver and avoids seeking comfort
72
Chronosystem
a model that considers how times and major life events impact a person's development
73
Disorganized Attachment
An attachment style where a child exhibits inconsistent and confused behavior, often due to neglect of trauma
74
Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner's model describing how different environmental systems influence development
75
Egocentrism
the inability to see a situation from another person's perspective, commonly seen in early childhood (Piaget)
76
Ecosystem
the environmental system that indirectly affects an individual, such as the parent's workplace or community services
77
Imaginary Audience
A belief common in adolescence where individuals think others are constantly watching and judging them.
78
Insecure Attachment
a general term for attachment styles where the child does not feel consistently safe or supported
79
Macrosystem
system in Bronfenbrenner's theory, encompassing cultural, societal and political influences on development
80
Microsystem
The immediate environment of an individual
(ex. family, friends, school)
81
Mesosystem
immediate connections between an Indvidual's microsystems
(ex. interactions between family and school)
82
Microsystem
the immediate environment of an induvial
(ex. family, friends and school)
83
Parallel Play
A types of play in early childhood where children play near each other but do not directly interact
84
Peer Influnence
the impact of friends and social groups on an individual's behavior, values and decisions
85
Permissive Parenting
A parenting style characterized by high warmth and low control, often leading to impulsive behavior and poor self-discipline in children
86
Personal Fable
a belief common in adolescence that one's experiences and feelings are unique and special
87
Pretend play
a types of play where children use imagination to act our roles, scenarios and stories
88
Secure Attachment
A healthy attachment style where a child feels confident in their caregiver's availability and comfort
89
Separation Anxiety
A healthy attachment style where a child feels confident in their caregiver's availability and comfort
90
Social Clock
The culturally preferred timing of life events
(ex. marriage, parenthood, retirement)
91
Temperament
A person's natural disposition and emotional reactivity which influences behavior and personality development
92
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
Traumatic experiences in childhood can negatively impact long-term development.
(ex. abuse, neglect)
93
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Erikson’s second stage [ages 1–3], is where children develop independence or feel shame about their abilities.
94
Emerging Adulthood
The transitional period [ages 18–25] between adolescence and full adulthood, marked by exploration and self-discovery.
95
Ethnic Identity
A person’s sense of belonging to a specific ethnic group and cultural heritage
96
Familial Identity
A sense of self that is influenced by family relationships, roles, and expectations.
97
Gender Identity
A person’s internal sense of being male, female, or another gender, which may or may not align with biological sex.
98
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson's seventh stage (middle adulthood), where individuals focus on contributing to society or feel stagnant and unproductive.
99
Identity
A person's sense of self, shaped by experiences, beliefs, and social influences.
100
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Erikson’s fifth stage (adolescence), where individuals explore different roles and either establish a clear sense of identity or struggle with confusion.
101
Identity Achievement Status
A state in which an individual has explored options and committed to a defined sense of self.
102
Identity Diffusion
A state where an individual has neither explored nor committed to a specific identity.
103
Identity Foreclosure
A state where an individual commits to an identity without exploration, often based on parental or societal expectations.
104
Identity Moratorium
A state where an individual actively explores different identities but has not yet made a commitment.
105
Identity Status Model
Marcia’s framework categorizing identity development into four statuses: achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium.
106
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson’s fourth stage (ages 6–12), where children develop confidence in their abilities or feel inferior compared to peers.
107
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson’s third stage (ages 3–6), where children learn to take initiative and make decisions or develop guilt over their actions.
108
Integrity vs. Despair
Erikson’s eighth stage (late adulthood), where individuals reflect on their lives with a sense of fulfillment or regret.
109
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson’s sixth stage (young adulthood), where individuals form close relationships or struggle with loneliness.
110
Occupational Identity
A person's sense of self in relation to career and work-related roles.
111
Possible Selves
An individual’s concept of what they might become in the future, including both hoped-for and feared identities.
112
Racial Identity
A person’s identification with a racial group and their understanding of its social meaning.
113
Religious Identity
A person's sense of connection to a particular religion or spiritual belief system.
114
Sexual Orientation
A person’s enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to individuals of the same, opposite, or both sexes.
115
Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s eight-stage model describing emotional and social growth throughout life.
116
Trust vs. Mistrust
Erikson’s first stage (infancy), where infants develop a sense of trust in caregivers or learn to mistrust the world.
117
Acquisition
stage in classical conditioning is when the neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus leading to a conditioned response.
118
Association
The process of linking two stimuli or a stimulus and a response in learning.
119
Associative Learning
Learning that involves forming connections between events, such as in classical and operant conditioning
120
Behavioral Perspective
A psychological approach that focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through conditioning.
121
Biological Preparedness
The idea that organisms are biologically predisposed to learn certain associations more easily
122
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a conditioned response
123
Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus after conditioning
(ex.salivating to a bell)
124
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A formerly neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
125
Counterconditioning
A process that replaces an unwanted conditioned response with a desirable one
126
Extinction
The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
127
Habituation
A decrease in response to a repeated stimulus over time.
128
High-Order Conditioning
A process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (weaker) conditioned stimulus.
129
One-Trial Learning
Learning that occurs after a single experience
130
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.
131
Stimulus Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and only respond to the conditioned stimulus
132
Stimulus Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus
(ex. being afraid of dogs after being bitten by one)
133
Taste Aversion
A learned avoidance of a particular food after experiencing illness following consumption
134
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
(ex. salivating to food)
135
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response
(ex. food causing salivation)
136
Continuous Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs
(quick learning -> quick extinction)
137
Fixed Interval
A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after a set amount of time has passed
(ex. receiving paycheck)
138
Fixed Ratio
A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after a set number of responses
(ex. free coffee after buying 5)
139
Instinctive Drift
The tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors despite conditioning efforts.
140
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative consequences are less likely.
141
Learned Helplessness
A condition in which repeated failures or negative experiences lead an individual to stop trying, even when success is possible.
142
Negative Reinforcement
Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus
143
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning where behavior is shaped by consequences, including reinforcement and punishment
144
Partial Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule in which behavior is rewarded intermittently, making it more resistant to extinction.
145
Positive Reinforcement
trengthening a behavior by adding a pleasant stimulus
(ex. giving praise)
146
Negative Punishment
Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease behavior
(ex. taking away toy)
147
Reinforcement
Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior
148
Reinforcement Discrimination
Learning to distinguish between behaviors that will or will not be reinforced
149
Reinforcement Generalization
Applying the effects of reinforcement to similar behaviors or situations
150
Reinforcement Schedules
Patterns that determine how often reinforcement is given
151
Scalloped Graph
a chart pattern that resembles a scallop shell's edge, with a series of curves or a rounded top or bottom
152
Secondary Reinforcers
Learned reinforcers that gain value through association with primary reinforcers
153
Shaping
A process in operant conditioning where behaviors are gradually guided toward a desired goal using reinforcement
154
Superstitious Behavior
A learned behavior that occurs because it was accidentally reinforced, even if it is not causally related to the outcome
155
Variable Interval
A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after an unpredictable amount of time
(ex. checking for social media notifications)
156
Variable Ratio
A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses
(ex. slot machines (gambling))
157
Cognitive Maps
Mental representations of physical environments that help with navigation and learning
158
Insight Learning
A sudden realization of a solution to a problem without trial-and-error learning
159
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated when needed
160
Modeling
Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
161
Social Learning Theory
Bandura’s theory that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling
162
Vicarious Conditioning
Learning through observing others being rewarded or punished for their behavior
163
Primary reinforcers
Natural reinforcers that satisfy biological needs
(ex. food, water)
164
Punishment
A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
165
Positive Punishment
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior
(ex. getting a speeding ticket$)
