Unit 3.3 The Reproductive System Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
Which system functions to ensure that survival of the species and the genes of an individual are passed on to the next generation?
A
The reproductive system!
2
Q
What do specialised sex cells or gametes contain?
A
Half of the chromosome number of the adult.
3
Q
What happens to these gametes at fertilisation?
A
At fertilisation these gametes fuse together to form a new, genetically unique cell known as the zygote.
4
Q
What does the fusion of two gametes producing a genetically unique cell introduce to a species?
A
Genetic variation which is key to the survival of a species.
5
Q
In humans, what are the primary reproductive organs or gonads? what are these responsible for?
A
The ovaries and testes responsible for producing the gametes and for production of hormones.
6
Q
What are the female and male gametes?
A
The female gametes are the egg cells and the male gametes are the sperm cells or spermatozoa
7
Q
What two things are hormones important in the development of?
A
In both sexes the hormones are important i the development of secondary sexual characteristics (for example facial hair and deep voice in men or wider hips and breasts in women) and in the development and function of the reproductive system.
8
Q
What are the structures called that sustain or transport the gametes and nurture the developing foetus?
A
All other organs, ducts and glands in the reproductive system are considered secondary or accessory reproductive organs.
9
Q
What is the role of the female in mammalian reproduction?
A
- To produce a relatively small number of large gametes (eggs) ready to be fertilised by a male.
- To provide the developing embryo with food, oxygen and protection and remove its waste products.
- To give birth to the foetus at the end of pregnancy
- Too provide the baby with food (milk) for a period of time.
10
Q
What makes up the female reproductive system?
A
The vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes (oviduct) and ovaries.
11
Q
What is the vagina?
A
A fibro-muscular tube about 7 to 9 cm long which can stretch a great deal during the birth process. Its structure varies with age and hormonal activity.
12
Q
What does the vagina produce?
A
Lubricating sections.
13
Q
What is the vagina home to that helps maintain vaginal health?
A
Millions of bacteria.
14
Q
What is the pH of the vagina? what helps maintain this? Why this pH?
A
Lacterobacilli produce lactic acid which helps to maintain an acid pH in the vagina of less than 4.5. This reduces the chances of invasion by external bacterial pathogens and fungi.
15
Q
What is the cervix? what is its size and function?
A
The cervix is the entrance to the uterus which extends into the vagina. It is about 3cm long and 2-2.5cm in diameter. with an opening normally less than 1cm but during childbirth expands to allow passage of the baby (about 10cm diameter) after delivery the cervix returns to normal in a very short time.
16
Q
What is the cervix covered in for much of the monthly menstrual cycle?
A
thick acidic mucus to prevent bacteria from entering the uterus.
17
Q
What happens to the cervix mucus during the fertile stage of the cycle? What is this thought to help?
A
It becomes thinner and plentiful with an alkaline pH - this is thought to help the sperm move through the cervix into the uterus. After ovulation the mucus thickens and becomes acidic again.
18
Q
What is the uterus?
A
The organ in which a baby grows and develops.
19
Q
What is the uterus made from?
A
The body and fundus (top section) of the uterus have thick walls of smooth muscle.
20
Q
What is the body of the uterus lined with?
A
The body of the uterus is linked by endometrium which thickens and becomes more vascular each month in preparation of pregnancy
21
Q
What happens in the uterus after fertilisation?
A
The developing embryo implants itself into the endometrium where it continues to grow and develop in the uterus and after 10 week is known as a foetus.
22
Q
What happens if fertilisation does not take place?
A
The thickened endometrium is lost during menstrual bleeding
23
Q
What are the fallopian tubes (oviducts)? How long are they? what are they lined with?
A
These are found either side of the uterus and are the site of fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm. they are about 10-12 cm long and linked with specialised ciliated epithelium.
24
Q
When the ovum is released from the ovary how is it guided into the fallopian tubes?
A
By the wide ends of the tubes known as the funnels of the oviduct or the fimbria.
25
What are ovaries? What are they the source of? what do they produce?
These are the primary sex organs, the source of mature ova and the endocrine organs that produce the steroid hormones (oestrogen and progesterone) that prepare the endometrium for conception and maintain pregnancy if fertilisation occurs. They also support the female secondary sex characteristics such as breasts and body shape.
26
At birth, what does each of the ovaries contain?
About 1 million follicles containing potential ova and no new ones are developed after birth - these cells are called primary oocytes.
27
How many ova will be released during a woman's lifetime?
around 400-500 ova will be ovulated during a womans lifetime at the rate of one per month.
28
In the ovaries, where are the immature ova found?
In structures known as follicles.
29
What happens to these follicles each month?
Several of these follicles mature each month and hen they are mature they are about 1.5cm in diameter.
30
What does the follicle develop as it matures?
It develops cells which secrete oestorgen and small amounts of progesterone just before ovulation
31
What forms around the oocyte?
A thick layer of material known as the zona pellucida.
32
What is the mature follicle also known as?
A Graafian follicle.
33
What accessory reproductive organ is fully functional in the female and present but underdeveloped in the male?
The mammary glands.
34
When and why do the female mammary glands develop and increase in size?
During puberty and in response to the hormone oestrogen.
35
What are the mammary glands modified versions of and part of which system?
they are modified sweat glands that are actually part of the skin system.
36
What does each mammary gland consist of?
15-20 lobes which are separated from each other by connective tissue and fat.
37
What is within each lobe? What do these produce?
Within each lobe are lobules which contain clusters of alveolar glands - these produce milk when a woman is lactating.
38
What opens to the outside via the nipple to release milk?
The lactiferous ducts
39
What does human milk consist of?
88% water, 7% lactose, 4% fat, 1% protein and various ions, principally calcium, sodium, potassium, phosphate and chloride. A wide range of growth factors is also secreted in breast milk along with antibodies to protect the baby from some diseases - it is the ideal food for human babies.
40
The female reporductive system prepares for pregnancy in a 4 week cycle known as what?
The menstrual cycle.
41
What happens in each cycle?
Several follicles mature, the lining of the uterus builds up in preparation of a pregnancy, an ovum is released from the follicle that matures first and then if it is not fertilised, the ovum dies and is lost with the lining of the uterus as the whole cycle begins again.
42
What 4 different hormone sis the menstrual cycle under control of?
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland in the brain and oestrogen and progesterone from the ovaries.
43
How long does the cycle normally last?
About 28 days including the bleeding period which is called menstruation.
44
Although the first day of menstrual bleeding suggests the end of a cycle, what does it actually mark?
The beginning of development of the next ovarian follicle. It is also an easily observed and clearly marked feature in the cycle hence day one of menstruation is traditionally numbered day one of a menstrual cycle.
45
How long does menstrual bleeding typically last for?
5 days.
46
On day one of the menstrual cycle what do low levels of oestrogen and progesterone trigger?
The menstrual bleeding (loss of the endometrial lining of the uterus) and stimulation of FSH from pituitary gland.
47
What does FSH stimulate?
Some of the follicles in the ovary to mature.
48
What do the maturing Graafian follicles being to secrete?
Oestrogen.
49
What does the secretion of oestrogen stimulate?
The build up of the endometrial lining of the uterus into a rick vascular spongy layer, ready for a pregnancy.
Also stimulates the pituitary to release LH.
50
What are FSH and LH known as?
The gonadotrophic hormones.
51
What does the combined action of oestrogen, LH and FSH cause?
One of the mature Graffian follicles to rupture and release a ripe ovum at about day 14 - this is ovulation when the woman is fertile and the egg can be fertilised by a sperm.
52
Under the influence of LH, what does the empty Graafian follicle develop into?
A corpus luteum
53
What does the corpus luteum produce?
Progesterone
54
What do high levels of progesterone maintain?
The thickened endometrium so it is prepared to recieve a fertilised ovum.
55
If fertilisation does not take place what happens?
The corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone production stops - without progesterone the endometrium breaks down and the richly vascular lining is shed in the process of menstruation, and the cycle begins again.
56
What is menarche?
The very first period a girl has.
57
What is he average age of menarche in the UK?
Around 13 years but it may be as early as 8 or as late as 18 within the normal range.
58
It may take some time for the menstrual cycle to settle into a regular pattern in any individual and often the first few cycles do not produce mature ova. What should normal menstrual cycles vary between?
21 and 35 days.
59
What is the menopause (climacteric)?
This takes place when the finite number of follicles in the ovaries are used up - oestrogen and progesterone levels fall and menstrual periods become erratic and eventually stop completely. It is a completely normal stage of life which can cause problems for some women. The body may react in a number of ways to reduced levels of oestrogen and progesterone.
60
What age does the menopause take place?
The early stages of the menopause usually begin in the mid-late 40s and the final menstrual period usually takes place between the ages of 45 and 55.
61
How long can symptoms associated with menopause?
May last as long as seven years.
62
In some women, what is menopause characterised by?
In some women, the menopause is characterised by a number of vasomotor symptoms including palpitations, night sweats and hot flushes. They may suffer with sleep disturbance and repeated UTIs. It is also linked in some women with mood changes, depression and loss of libido although others find the exact opposite.
63
What is the loss of oestrogen in menopausal women believed to be associated with?
In the long term with a reduction in bone density (osteoporosis) and increased risk of heart problems.
64
What is the male reproductive system adapted to transport?
The male gametes - the sperm - inside the vagina of the female.
65
What are the primary male reproductive organs?
The testes. Which produces the male sex hormones testosterone and sperm.
66
When do the testes develop?
In the foetus on the abdomen wall and descend into the scrotum around the seventh month of foetal development.
67
Why are testes located outside the body cavity?
They are paired organs located outside the body cavity in the scrotal sacks to maintain and temperature of 2-3 degrees C below body temperature which is essential for the normal development of sperm.
68
What are the compartments of the testes filled with?
A series of coiled tubes called seminiferous tubles.
69
Where is the sperm formed and begins to mature?
The seminiferous tubles.
70
Where does the sperm go from the Seminiferous tubles?
The sperm leaves the seminiferous tubles via the epididymis tube and enter a third section of tubing called the vas deferens (sperm duct).
71
How long does it take to produce mature sperm?
The whole process takes around 70-74 days to complete. It takes around 60 days to produce the basic sperm in the seminiferous tubules and then another 10-14 days for them to mature as they move through the epididymis and vas deferens.
72
What does the prostate gland make?
It makes secretions which contain fructose and other sugars, supplying the term with the source of energy.
73
What does the vas deferens pass through?
The prostate gland.
74
What makes up a large proportion of the seminal fluid that is ejaculated during sex?
The secretions from the prostate gland make up a large proportion of the seminal fluid (semen) that is ejaculated during sex.
75
What does the seminal vesicle produce?
It is a gland which produces sugars and fluid to make up the seminal fluid.
76
What is the function of the urethra?
It is a tube which carries urine and the seminal fluid containing sperm out of the penis but not at the same time.
77
What allows a man from both urinating and ejaculate but not at the same time?
A valve at the top of the urethra.
78
What is the seminal fluid?
The combination of mature sperm along with the secretions of the various glands of the reproductive tract, that is ejaculated from the penis high in the vagina, at the cervix during sexual intercourse.
79
How much seminal fluid do most men produce when they ejaculate?
Between 1.5 and 5cm3.
80
Is seminal fluid acidic or alkaline?
Seminal fluid is slightly alkaline in nature, it should have a pH of 7.1 or higher according the WHO
81
What does the slightly alkaline nature of seminal fluid do?
It helps to neutralise the acidic fluid of the vagina, sperm cannot move in an acidic environment so the alkaline pH of the seminal fluid along with the alkaline mucus produced by the cervix at the time of ovulation is key to the sperm being able to function and move to the ovum.
82
What is the function of the penis?
This is the organ which transfers sperm form the body of the man into the reproductive system of the woman
83
What is the structure of the penis?
It contains both spongy and erectile tissue and a number of blood spaces (venous sinuses) which can fill with blood.
84
What happens when the penis is stimulated?
The increased blood slow makes the penis erect.
85
What can penile erection be a result of?
Penile erection is a result of a parasympathetic nerve reflex originating in the higher centres of the brain or may also be triggered by stimulation of the skin in the genital region.
86
What happens when the male reaches orgasm?
The seminal fluid containing the mature sperm is ejaculated out from the urethra into the female vagina.
87
What are the male sex hormones.
These are steroid hormones and the best known is testosterone, produced in the testes.
88
What is testosterone essential for?
It is essential to the development of the male sex organs and the production of sperm and seminal fluid. It is also needed for the development and maintenance of the male secondary sex characteristics such as the deep voice, facial and body hair and the male body shape - because testosterone is an anabolism steroid it stimulates both bone and muscle development.
89
Once a human ovum leaves the ovary at ovulation how long does it remain viable for?
Between 12 and 48 hours.
90
How long do sperm remain capable of fertilising an ovum for?
Between 4 and 6 days following their ejaculation into the vagina.
91
For pregnancy to occur when must sperm enter the vagina?
For pregnancy to occur, sperm must enter the vagina between 5 days before or one day after ovulation.
92
What is released in each ejaculation?
Around 1.5 - 5cm3 of seminal fluid containing an average of 15 million -200 million sperm per 1cm3
93
Within how long of intercourse can some sperm be detected in the uterus?
Within one min or so.
94
How does sperm move through the length of the uterus and into the oviducts?
Mainly by lashing movements of their flagellum which allows them to swim through the female reproductive organs.
95
Why do only a few thousand sperm reach the oviduct?
Most sperm die in the acidic environment of the vagina.
96
What needs to happen before sperm can fertilise an ovum?
Sperm cannot fertilise an ovum until they have been in the female reproductive system for several house and have been acted upon by secretions in the uterine tract - this is known as capacitation and appears to remove the seminal fluid from the sperm.
97
What part of the sperm is altered during capacitation and why?
The plasma membrane of the sperm is altered so that it becomes capable of fusing with the surface membrane of the ovum.
98
Before sperm can fertilise any ovum, what do they have to remove?
The outer layer, the zona pellucida.
99
How do the sperm remove the zona pellucida?
The sperm cluster around the ovum and release enzymes from their acrosomes - these enzymes help digest a pathway through the zona pellucida layer of the ovum which takes around 20 mins.
100
What does the first sperm to penetrate the entire zona pellucida do?
Reaches the plasma membrane of the ovum and fuses with the membrane itself. The head of the sperm then passes slowly into the cytoplasm of the ovum with the tail remaining outside.
101
Once one sperm has fertilised an ovum to form a zygote, what is important?
It is very important that no more sperm get in.
102
What takes place to prevent any more sperm getting into the zygote?
A complex series of events within the cell creates a fertilisation membrane that consists mainly of enzymes that prevent penetration of the egg by another sperm.
103
What happens to the fertilised ovum in the next few hours?
Over the next few hours the fertilised ovum divides by meiosis again in a process known as the second meiotic division. the zygote now divides by mitosis.
104
What does the early embryo do?
it remains in the oviduct for 3 or 4 days dividing by mitosis to form a ball of cells called a blastocyst.
105
When is the early embryo allowed to enter the uterus where it will implant into the endometrium?
Eventually the smooth muscle in the uterine tube relaxes due to increase progesterone levels and the embryo is allowed to enter the uterus where it will implant into the endometrium and continue to divide and grow. it takes about a week to move down the oviduct and reach the uterus.
106
What happens to the implanted embryo over the next 8-10 weeks?
It becomes more recognisable as a human form and the internal organs begin to develop - it is during this stage of development that the embryo is particularly vulnerable to damage by drugs which might be taken by the mother before she even realises she is pregnant. After this stage the embryo is called a foetus.
107
What is the foetus held in?
A large sac called the amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid which supports the developing foetus and protects it from damage.
108
What is the placenta? what is it made up of?
The placenta is an organ made up partly of tissue from the foetus and partly of tissue from the mother. It is attached to the uterus and connects with the foetus via the umbilical cord.
109
What does the foetus receive from the mother?
The foetus receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother.
110
What happens to waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea?
They pass to the mother who excretes them.
111
What allows the exchange of oxygen, nutrients and waste materials between mother and foetus?
The many capillaries in the placenta providing a large surface area for exchange.
112
What does the placenta weigh full term?
Around 650g
113
The placenta is also an endocrine organ what does it produce?
It produces human chorionic gonadotrophin (hcg) which stimulates the corps luteum to secrete progesteron.
114
How long does a normal pregnancy last?
The foetus continues to grow and mature in the uterus until the end of pregnancy which last about 40 weeks from the last normal period before conception.
115
What happens to the smooth muscle at the end of pregnancy?
The smooth muscle of the uterus forces the foetus out into the world where it has to breathe and feed for itself - a baby has been delivered.
116
At what point does pregnancy being?
About one week after fertilisation when the blastocyst starts to implant in the lining of the uterus.
117
What is contraception?
Birth control that works prior to fertilisation.
118
What is an abortion?
Procedures that cause the termination of the doetus after implantation including medical (use of substances) or surgical (physical) methods.
119
What are substances that induce abortion called?
Abortifacients.
120
How do hormone based contraceptions work?
By using synthetic hormones similar in action to oestrogen and/or progesterone, the natural menstrual cycle can be interrupted and the production of a mature ovum prevents.
121
What does the contraceptive pill contain?
A low dose of oestrogen along with some progesterone.
122
What do the hormones in the contraceptive pill inhibit?
The production and release of FSH by the pituitary gland affecting the ovaries so no eggs mature. Without mature eggs, women cannot become pregnant.
the hormones also stop the uterus lining developing so eggs cannot implant and make the mucus in the cervix thick to prevent sperm getting through.
123
What are the pros and cons of the contraceptive pill?
It is easy to use but there is a slight risk of side effects including raised blood pressure, thrombosis and breast cancer
124
What is the minipill or progesterone only pill, whats the different between it and the mixed pill?
It contains no oestrogen, having similar effects to the mixed pill but less effective at suppressing ovulation. It must be taken at the same time every day to be as effective as possible
125
What is the contraceptive implant?
It is inserted under the skin - they release progesterone slowly and prevent pregnancy for up to 3 years - very effective
126
How long are contraceptive injections of progesterone effective for?
Up to 12 weeks.
127
What are contraceptive patches?
Patches impregnated with a mixture of oestrogen and progesterone that are stuck onto the skin - lasts a week, new path once a week for 3 weeks then a week off. Used properly can prevent ovulation and also affects the vaginal mucus and endometrium.
128
What are barrier methods?
Methods of contraception involving placing a barrier between the semen and preventing the ovum and sperm meeting - the effectiveness of barrier methods is increased when they are used with a spermicide, a chemical which kills sperm.
129
What are condoms?
Thin latex sheaths places over the penis during intercourse to collect the semen and prevent the ovum and sperm meeting. They can offer some protection against sexually transmitted disease but can relatively easily fail and allow sperm through.
130
What is a diaphragm or cap?
A thin latex diaphragm places over the cervix - no side effects but they do need to be fitted by a HCP initially to make sure they fit properly.
131
What is a Intrauterine device (IUD)?
These are small structures inserted into the uterus by a doctor They last from 3 to 5 years and are extremely effective at preventing pregnancy. Some contain copper which prevent early embryos implanting into the uterus and others contain progesterone which is released slowly to prevent build up of the endometrium and thicken the mucus of the cervix.
132
What is abstinence?
If people do not have sex they will not get pregnant - abstaining from sexual intercourse before and around ovulation and when the ovum is in the oviduct means there will be no sperm to fertilise the egg - it is accepted but unreliable. Using an ovulation indicator or taking daily temp readings to show the temperature spike that occurs around ovulation makes it more effective.
133
What are surgical contraceptive methods?
It is possible to cut or tie off the sperm ducts in men or cut or tie the oviducts in women - this is effective permanent contraception with no risk of human error. it is known as sterilisation - done under local anaesthetic for men but women need a general anaesthetic which carries a level of risk.
134
What is thrush called and caused by?
Also called moniliasis, candidosis, candidiasis or candidial vaginitis. It is caused by infection of the vagina by a yeast Candida albicans which is a type of fungus.
135
What happens when someone has thrush? When is it common?
The vaginal wall becomes inflamed and itchy and there is a thick white vaginal discharge - it is common following a course of antibiotics when the normal protective commensal vaginal bacteria are temporarily lost.
136
What is menstrual dysfunction?
Many different problems with the female reproductive system that can result in period problems, including periods that are extremely irregular, periods that are almost constant, cramping , bloating and anaemia.
137
What are menopausal symptoms?
Women can experience many problems associated with the menopause including heavy menstrual bleeding, hot flushes, night sweats, inability to sleep, anxiety and heart problems.
138
What are the reasons a woman may be infertile?
Many different reasons such as having no ova in the ovaries or no uterus, to lacking FSH or having infected or blocked oviducts.
139
Which cancers in women are all relatively common?
Cancers of the ovaries, uterus and cervix. - If they are detected early they can be treated successfully but if they have spread and formed secondary cancers before they are detected then they can be fatal.
140
Which cancer is now regarded largely as a sexually transmitted disease and why?
Cervical cancer as it can be caused by HPV human papilloma virus.
141
What is erectile dysfunction/impotence?
The inability to achieve or sustain an erection. Occurs when a man has difficulty either getting an erection or with keeping an erection for long enough to allow satisfactory sexual activity.
142
what are the causes for ED?
In around 2 thirds of cases, there are physical problems affecting the blood supply. However there is a complex relationship between physical and psychological aspects of sexual function - physical health problems can cause psychological distress that can have an additional effect in erection problems.
143
Several conditions prevent sufficient blood getting into the penis and so cause ED What do these include?
Diabetes and vascular disease.
144
What is vent-occlusive disease
Problems with keeping the blood within the penis resulting in erections that are quickly lost
145
How can problems with the nervous system affect erections?
They can affect the transmission of signals from the brain to the blood vessels in the penis.
146
What are the causes of male infertility?
No sperm production, low levels of sperm production, seminal fluid that is too acidic and large numbers of sperm that are deformed and cannot swim. Also in some men the seminal fluid doe not change in consistency after ejaculation so the sperm cannot complete the journey.
147
There are two common prostate conditions, what are these?
Benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer.
148
What is benign prostatic hyperplasia?
A very common disease affecting up to 50% of men by age 60. The graduate enlargement of the prostate may squeeze the urethra passing through it leading to problems with passing urine. It may be present but not clinically significant and in most cases it results in inconvenient symptoms with respect to slow, intermittent or infrequent urine flow. It troublesome then pharmacology can be used or surgery.
149
What is prostate cancer?
It can remain within the prostate gland and give similar symptoms to BPH but may split so fragments are carried around the body to form secondary tumours which can be fatal.
150
What can be used to treat thrush?
Anti fungals such as the imidazole drug which are very effective against yeast such as candida albicans.
151
What can be used to treat menstrual dysfunction?
Treatment vary widely depending on symptoms. The pill can be used to control and regulate periods and other synthetic female hormones can also be used. problems such as anaemia are treated using iron supplements and sometime surgical interventions are helpful.
152
What can be used to treat menopausal symptoms?
Hormone replacement therapy involves giving oestrogen or a mixture of oestrogen and progesterones to replace the falling levels of hormones in a menopausal woman,
153
What can be used to treat infertility in women?
It depends on the cause. Medicines can be used to trigger ovulation in women who do not produce enough pituitary hormones of their own or when a lot of ripe follicles are wanted for IVF.
IVF involves removing ova from a woman, fertilising them with sperm outside the body and replacing one or two early embryos in the uterus to develop, sometimes surgery is needed to open up oviducts or help prepare the uterus for pregnancy.
154
How can cancers of the ovaries, uterus and cervix be treated?
All by surgery, chemotherapies and radiotherapy. If they are detected early they can be treated successfully but if they have spread and formed secondary cancers before they are detected they can be fatal. In the UK girls between 11 and 14 are offered a vaccine which protects them against the viruses that cause around 70% of all cases of cervical cancer.
155
What can be used to treat erectile dysfunction?
Phosphodiesterase type 5 is the enzyme responsible for ending the relaxation of smooth muscle in the penis. Phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors are used to treat ED as they allow the blood vessels to remain open longer so more blood flows into the penis to achieve and maintain an erection.
156
What can treat infertility in men?
Depends on the cause. Smoking and drinking alcohol can lower sperm counts so cutting them out can help. Sometimes surgery can be used to correct physical abnormalities and hormone treatment can help boost sperm production. Sperm can also be introduced directly into the fallopian tubes or mixed with the ova outside the body of a woman in IVF or even injected individually into an ovum to fertilise it.
157
What can BPH be treated with?
Alpha blockers can relax smooth muscle in the prostate gland and the neck of the bladder making it easier for men with enlarged prostate glands to pass urine. reducing prostate size may be beneficial in improving urinary flow rate.
158
What can prostate cancer be treated with?
A combination of approaches including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy and psychological therapy as well as surgery.
