Unit 4 - Principles of Fitness, Exercise and Health Flashcards
Level 2 Fitness Instructor, Unit 4, study toward written exam.
1
Q
Is “Fitness” described by everyone the same way?
A
No, as a concept it is difficult to provide a definitive definition, because fitness means different things to different people: A state of well-being, e performs physical activity, adaptation to the stresses of one’s lifestyle, ability to carry out everyday tasks with vigor and without excess stress or fatigue.
2
Q
What are the five main components of total fitness?
A
• physical fitness (health-related and skill-related) • mental and emotional fitness – harmony with a positive mental state • medical fitness – free from injury, disease and illness • nutritional fitness – good nutritional intake for fuel, growth and repair • social – healthy interaction with others
3
Q
For an instructor, which components of fitness are predominant?
A
For an instructor the components of physical fitness will be the focus.
4
Q
Which are the five components of health- related fitness?
A
Cardiovascular fitness Muscular strength Muscular endurance Flexibility Body composition
5
Q
Define cardiovascular fitness.
A
Cardiovascular fitness is the ability of the heart, lungs and muscles to take in, transport and utilize oxygen during exercise. By doing physical activity the pulse quickens and breathing gets deeper – you are using the cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system’s efficiency will be improved through regular aerobic training.
6
Q
Define Muscular strength.
A
Muscular strength can be defined as the maximal amount of force a muscle or group of muscles can generate during one contraction.
7
Q
Why is the development of muscular strength useful?
A
For 2 key reasons. Firstly, the individual is able to produce a greater maximal force when required to do so. Secondly, with enhanced levels of strength everyday sub-maximal tasks require a lesser percentage of the individual’s maximal effort, thus making the task easier.
8
Q
Give examples for activities requiring maximal strength.
A
Heavy weight lifting and lifting or moving heavy objects.
9
Q
Define muscular endurance.
A
Muscular endurance can be defined as the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to contract repeatedly for extended periods of time without fatigue. The vast majority of everyday situations that require an individual to exert force require muscular endurance.
10
Q
Which common activities require muscular endurance?
A
Carrying shopping, walking up stairs, maintaining a good posture, gardening and exercise sessions involving high repetition resistance training.
11
Q
How can Flexibility be defined?
A
Flexibility can be defined as the range of movement about a joint or series of joints.
12
Q
Why is it important to the individual to develop and maintain flexibility?
A
To ensure an appropriate range of motion at all joints and a freedom of movement.
13
Q
Give examples of activities and sports that require flexibility.
A
gymnastics, dance, yoga and everyday normal function.
14
Q
What does body composition describe in health-related fitness?
A
It’s used to describe the percentages of fat, bone and muscle in human bodies.
15
Q
Why is the percentage of fat of most interest?
A
Because it can be very helpful in judging health in addition to body weight.
16
Q
What amount of body fat does the National Institute of Health recommend that an adult’s male body should have?
A
Between 13 and 17 percent fat.
17
Q
What amount of body fat does the National Institute of Health recommend that an adult’s female body should have?
A
Between 20 and 25 percent fat.
18
Q
At what body fat percentage do most athletes experience greater performance benefits?
A
Between 7 and 19 percent for men, and 10 and 25 percent for women, depending on the sport.
19
Q
Which are the 6 skill-related fitness components?
A
Speed Power Reaction time Co-ordination Balance Agility
20
Q
Explain the skill-related component of Speed.
A
Speed is about quickness of movement, whether this is the legs of a runner or the arms of the shot putter. Speed is an integral part of every sport and can be expressed as any one of, or combination of, the following: maximum speed, elastic strength (power) and speed endurance.
21
Q
Explain the skill-related component of Power.
A
Power is the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an explosive burst of movements. The two components of power are strength and speed e.g. jumping or a sprint start.
22
Q
Explain the skill-related component of Reaction time.
A
Reaction time is the ability to respond quickly to a stimulus. Simple reaction time is the time taken between a stimulus and movement e.g. sprint start. Such simple reaction time depends on nerve connections and signal pathways, is ‘hard wired’ in the body and cannot be improved. Another type of reaction time, choice reaction time, is the time taken between stimulus and action which requires a choice. Choice reaction time can be improved by practice and training.
23
Q
Explain the skill-related component of Co-ordination.
A
The ability to move two or more body parts under control, smoothly and efficiently.
24
Q
Explain the skill-related component of Balance.
A
The ability to control the body’s position, either stationary e.g. a handstand or while moving e.g. a gymnastics move.
25
Explain the skill-related component of Agility.
The ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in rapid succession in opposing directions e.g. zigzag running or cutting movements.
26
Which factor will affect an individual’s fitness level?
Age
Gender
Physique/body type
Diet
Activity Level
Physical disabilities
Illness and fatigue
Drugs
Stress
Environment
27
How can age affect the fitness level?
Fitness is generally greatest during the 20’s. Although the speed at which the effects of ageing occur can be offset by regular physical activity, it progressively results in weaker muscles, lighter bones, stiffer joints, slower reflexes and an increase in body fat.
28
How can gender affect the fitness level?
Up to puberty males and females tend to be equal in terms of general fitness. However, due to increased levels of testosterone, active males grow stronger due to greater muscle mass. Since males are generally larger than females they have larger lungs and therefore have a greater potential for transporting oxygen thereby increasing CV fitness abilities. With longer bones and larger muscles males have the ability to move faster. Females of all ages tend to be more flexible than males. Females usually have more body fat than males.
29
How does Physique/Body Type affect the fitness level?
An individual’s body type will have a significant impact on their ability to perform various physical tasks successfully e.g. a tall thin person may be more suited to basketball than rugby.
30
What is a simply system for assessing body type?
The visual system of somatotyping. It suggests that there are three distinct body types: ectomorphs, endomorphs and mesomorphs.
31
How are ectomorphs?
Ectomorphs are naturally thin with little body fat or muscle mass. Ectomorphs find it difficult to gain weight (either muscle or fat) and are well suited to weight-bearing aerobic activities such as long distance running.
32
How are Mesomorphs?
Mesomorphs tend to be **naturally lean and muscular**, with broad shoulders and narrow waist and hips. Mesomorphs are naturally athletic and tend to be suited to a wide variety of sporting activities, especially those requiring a good power to weight ratio.
33
How are Endomorphs?
Endomorphs are naturally predisposed to fat storage. They tend to be apple or pear-shaped and carry large amounts of body fat. Endomorphs also tend to possess a
reasonable degree of muscle mass, although this is often overlooked due to the predisposition for fat storage. Activities such as shot putt and hammer throwing may
be suited to endomorphs.
34
Can any individual clearly be categorized within the three different body types?
No, many individuals are not exclusively one of the body types, but rather a combination of two or more. For example, an individual with a small frame, little muscle mass and a tendency to store body fat could be considered an ectomorph with endomorphic
tendencies.
35
Why is understanding the body type important when discussing and cementing clients objectives?
An endomorph with a goal of becoming a competitive marathon runner may need to re-evaluate their objective as they are not structurally suited to this type of activity. Similarly, ectomorphs are unlikely to succeed in the field of competitive bodybuilding as they have difficulty gaining muscular size. If this is to be discussed, then it will obviously need to be done with sensitivity.
36
How can diet affect the fitness level?
The body needs certain substances for energy, growth and repair which are provided by the food taken in. A healthy diet with quality nutrition will help ensure that the
body will function at its best.
37
How can the activity level affect the fitness level?
Running and training with weights are not the only way to help with your fitness levels. Regular activities such as walking the dog, cycling and gardening, can also
make significant contributions.
38
How can physical disabilities affect the fitness level?
```
Although a physical impairment may prevent part of the body functioning correctly, targeted exercise can keep the rest of the body very fit. As demonstrated in the
Paralympics, many disabled people are first class athletes.
```
39
How can illness and fatique affect the fitness level?
When tired or ill the ability to perform diminishes. This could be caused through working too hard with insufficient rest.
40
How can drugs affect the fitness level?
Both medical and recreational drugs (alcohol, cigarettes) will affect an individual’s fitness. When undertaking physical activity, recreational drugs should be avoided
and, if taking drugs for health reasons, medical advice should be sought.
41
How can stress affect the fitness level?
High levels of stress can lead to illness, causing health problems such as high blood pressure and heart disease.
42
How can the environment affect the fitness level?
The quality of the air taken in will determine the amount of oxygen that can be utilised. Aerobic fitness can therefore be significantly influenced by the following
environmental factors:
• fumes from traffic and factories
• weather – hot, cold, humidity
• at high altitude the air is thinner and individuals will need to breathe harder to get enough oxygen in
43
What are the main cause of death in the UK and many
developed nations?
Diseases of inactivity (hypokinetic).
44
What do current guidelines suggests to be active?
• significant health benefits can be gained by including 30 minutes of moderate activity on most, if not all, days of the week (Department of Health, 2004)
• additional health benefits can be gained through regular participation in activity that is of longer duration or of more vigorous intensity (U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1996)
45
What are the benefits of physical activity? What can it help to prevent?
Overall mortality
Cardiovascular diseases
Cancer
Osteoarthritis
Osteoporosis
Falling
Obesity
Type II diabetes
Mental health
Health-related quality of life
46
What does exercise do the body? (Stimulation)
Exercise is a stimulus which primarily affects the cardiovascular and neuromuscular systems and so it is within these that most adaptations are experienced.
47
What are cardiovascular and respiratory adaptations to endurance / aerobic training?
**Heart:**
* increased size of the heart muscle (ventricular hypertrophy)
* increased strength of contraction
* increased stroke volume
* increased cardiac output
* reduced resting heart rate
* increased blood vessel size
* decreased risk of heart disease
**Blood vessels and blood chemistry:**
* reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP)
* favourable change in blood lipids
* increased haemoglobin
* increased blood volume
**Lungs:**
* increased functional capacity during exercise
* increased diffusion of respiratory gases
* increased vital capacity
**Metabolic function:**
* decreased insulin resistance and improved glucose tolerance - beneficial for treatment and prevention of diabetes
* reduced body fat
* increased maximal O2 uptake (V02 max)
**Muscular changes:**
* increased capillarisation of muscles
* increased enzymatic function within muscle cells
* increase in size and number of mitochondria
* improved perception of muscle tone
**Psychological factors:**
* improved self mastery
* increased social interaction
* distraction from the daily routine
* decreased depression and anxiety
48
What short term effects does aerobic exercise have on blood pressure?
There is a linear increase in SBP with increasing levels of exertion.
In contrast, during exertion DBP may decrease slightly, due to vasodilation, or will remain unchanged, except in hypertensives where it may rise as a result of an impaired vasodilatory response.
49
How do heavy weight training and isometric exercise affect blood pressure?
heavy weight training and isometric exercise will significantly increase both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
50
What long-term effects does aerobic exercise have on blood pressure?
Aerobic exercise using large muscle groups in rhythmical activity is very appropriate for reducing blood pressure over time. With the exception of circuit weight training, chronic strength or resistance training has not consistently been shown to lower resting blood pressure
51
What is Blood pooling?
* During exercise, as the heart rate rises, there is an increased flow of blood to muscles but nevertheless, venous return is maintained mainly due to the increased pumping action of the muscles.
* Should the activity stop suddenly however, the heart will still continue pumping blood around the body at the exercising rate for some time.
* Since the muscles now will have stopped working, extra blood will begin to build up or ‘pool’ in large muscle groups. This effect is called ‘blood pooling.’
52
Which part of the body is mostly affected by blood pooling?
* The legs are most commonly affected due to the extra influence of gravity.
* Common symptoms are nausea, dizziness and fainting.
53
What short-term (while the individual is exercising) effects does exercise have on bones and joints?
Short term responses (to any movements/exercise):
* increase in synovial fluid production
54
What is an increase of synovial fluid production?
In response to increased movement, synovial joints will increase the production of synovial fluid. This fluid acts as a lubricant to protect the joint from excess wear and
tear (much like the oil in a car engine).
55
What are long term adaptations (to weight-bearing exercise)?
* stronger ligaments
* increased bone density
* reduced loss of bone mass associated with age
56
What is delayed onset of muscular soreness (DOMS)?
This is the name given to the pain, soreness or stiffness experienced in muscles typically between 12-72 hours after exercise
57
When is DOMS especially common?
It is particularly common following the beginning of a new exercise programme, especially if it involves increased eccentric loading (e.g. going down stairs, running downhill, downward motion of squats) or an increase in intensity. This seems to be caused by exercise-induced muscle damage followed by an inflammatory response, although the exact mechanisms are still not fully understood.
58
What are the short term effects of exercise on muscles?
* Vasodilation (diversion of blood) to the working muscles, and away from the non-essential organs. This can result in a temporary increase in muscle diameter, sometimes called the ‘pump’
* Possible DOMS
59
What are the long term effects of exercise on muscles?
* repetition of any activity will enhance neuromuscular connections, helping improve motor fitness by enabling greater efficiency of movement and motor unit recruitment
* dependent on the regularity, duration and intensity with which a muscle is used, the properties of a muscle are also changed
60
What effect does aerobic exercise and muscular endurance resistance training have on muscles (fibres)?
Low intensity, long duration exercise can bring about the following changes on Type I fibres:
• an increase in the number and size of mitochondria in the muscle fibres
• an increase in the number of capillaries surrounding these fibres
• an increase in the number of aerobic enzymes stored glycogen and triglycerides in the muscle fibres
61
What effect does Hypertrophy and strength resistance training have on muscles (fibres)?
Short duration, high-intensity exercise affects mainly Type II fibres:
• a decrease in nervous inhibition
• an increase in the diameter of the recruited fibres (hypertrophy) due to an increase in the myofilaments within the fibres
• an increase in the glycolytic activity of the muscle allowing more work to be performed under anaerobic conditions or high-stress conditions
62
What does the modern lifestyle do to our posture?
* Modern lifestyles involve sitting for much longer periods of time e.g. sitting, driving, which encourages a round-shouldered ‘**kyphotic**’ posture.
* Also, work tends to involve small movements performed under tension (use of a computer keyboard, for example) resulting in shortened muscles and poor flexibility.
* Eventually, these effects will lead to decreased function and increase the risk of injury, pain and discomfort.
63
What should the instructor endeavour to improve good posture?
The instructor should, therefore, endeavour to include **resistance exercises**, and **stretches** in their training programmes which help compensate for modern lifestyle factors, such as rounded-shoulders and poor range of movement, etc.
64
What exercises can be included when initiating a posture-improvement process?
* full range
* compound movement patterns
* a free-standing posture
* free weights and cables
* an equal number of push and pull exercises
* dynamic and developmental stretches
65
Name the morphological factors of the benefits of resistance training.
* muscle hypertrophy due to increases in contractile proteins, number and size of myofibrils, connective tissues, and size of type II fibres
* increase in strength and size of ligaments and tendons
* increase in bone density and bone strength
* increase in muscle capillary density
66
Name the Neural factors of the benefits of resistance training.
* **increase** in **motor unit activation** and **recruitment**
* **increase** in **discharge** (nerve impulses) **frequency** of motor neurons (nerve cell)
* **decrease** in **neural inhibition** (muscles protective braking mechanisms)
67
Name the biochemical factors of the benefits of resistance training.
* the minor increase in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and CP (Creatine phosphate) stores
* increase in testosterone and growth hormone during resistance training exercises
68
Name the additional factors of the benefits of resistance training.
* little or no change in body mass
* increase in fat-free mass/muscle mass
* decrease in fat mass and relative body fat percentage
* improved bone health
* increased strength
* increased power
* increased muscular endurance
* improved posture
* improved proprioception
* increased metabolic rate
* increased ROM (range of motion)
* improved immune function
69
Explain the resistance training terminology **Repetitions**.
* Fleck and Kraemer (1997), define a repetition (rep) as ‘**one complete movement of an exercise**’.
* It is a **cycle of muscular contractions**, which for most exercises will be **one concentric and one eccentric** muscle action.
70
Explain the resistance training terminology **Sets**.
* A set is a group of repetitions performed continuously without stopping
* The number of repetitions in a set is usually between 1 and 20, depending on the goal of the individual and what they are participating in.
71
Explain the resistance training terminology **Repetition maximum** (RM).
* This is the maximum number of repetitions at a given resistance that can be performed in a set with good technique
* 1RM means the maximum weight that can be lifted once (effectively maximal muscular strength).
* A 10-15RM target means that momentary voluntary fatigue should sit in between the tenth and fifteenth repetition. RM is usually used as a guide for the load or weight.
72
Explain the resistance training terminology **Intensity**.
* Intensity refers to how much **effort is applied to an exercise**, **not the amount of fatigue** encountered or how hard an exercise feels (relative intensity).
* In the case of **resistance** training, **1RM would equate to maximum intensity**.
* Intensity of an exercise can be estimated as a percentage of the 1RM. Unlike cardiovascular exercise, intensity in resistance training does not correlate with heart rate.
73
Explain the resistance training terminology **Intensity**.
* Training volume can mean the **total number of repetitions** performed in a training **session** or the **total amount of weight** lifted (load) in a **session**
* Fleck and Kraemer (1997), also refer to it as the **total amount of work performed in a session**, a week, a month, or some other time period.
* There is a strong relationship between the volume of training and goals, such as hypertrophy.
74
Explain the resistance training terminology **Compound and isolation exercises**.
* **Compound** exercises are defined as **multi-joint exercises** or those that involve more than one joint.
* **Isolation** exercises, on the other hand, involve only **one joint**.
* For example, the **squat is a compound exercise** that involves the hip, knee and ankle joints;
* the **leg extension** only involves the knee joint and therefore, is an **isolation** **exercise**.
75
What do **compound exercises** rely on?
* They rely on **good neuromuscular co-ordination** between **agonists, antagonists, synergists and fixators**.
* As **more muscle** groups are utilised during compound work, **more weight** can be lifted and **functional movements** can be **more efficiently trained**.
* This is especially valid for sports specific training and rehabilitation, as long as the correct technique is adhered to.
76
What is **Hypertrophy**?
Hypertrophy is simply referring to **muscular
enlargement** and is brought on predominantly by an increase in the cross-sectional area of the muscle fibres
77
What does the process of hypertrophy involve?
The process of hypertrophy, to increase fibre size and therefore, muscle size, involves two main processes:
• **increase in the synthesis of the actin and myosin** within the myofibril (laid down on the external layers to increase the diameter)
• **increase in the number of myofibrils** within a muscle fibre
78
What is **required** in order to achieve **hypertrophy**?
**Moderate loads** and **high volume training** with **short** to **moderate** **rest periods** are required in order to achieve hypertrophy.
79
Name the different **types of resistance**.
* **free** weights (e.g. barbells, dumbbells, medicine balls)
* resistance **machines** (fixed-path machines or cables)
* **body** weight
* **manual** resistance (applied by a partner or an opposing limb)
* **rubber** bands/dynabands
* **water**
80
What is the **Agonists**?
The **muscle that contracts** to produce and control movement
81
What is the **Antagonists**?
Muscle(s) that **relax** whilst the agonist is contracting.
82
What is the **Synergists**?
Muscle(s) that **contract** to **assist** the **agonist** by modifying the desired movement.
83
What are **Fixators**?
Muscles that **fix another part of the body**, usually a nearby joint, so that it remains stable.
84
What is the **aim** of the **warm up**?
To place the cardiovascular, respiratory and neuromuscular systems in a state of **readiness for activity**.
85
What are the **objectives of the warm up**?
* raise the pulse rate
* raise the body temperature
* mobilise the major joints
* stretch muscles in an appropriate way
86
What is the **main function** of the **warm up**?
* The main function of the warm-up is to **raise the body temperature** using **all major muscle groups** in a **controlled rhythmical activity**, therefore, **increasing blood flow** and **elasticity of muscle tissue** and allowing **more oxygen** to be carried to the **working muscles**. The movements chosen should **mimic** and **prepare** the body for the activity to follow.
87
What **physiological benefits** does **warm up** provide, by raising the body temperature?
* increased **core body temperature**, which will cause **vasodilation**, increasing blood supply and providing more oxygen to the tissues and working muscles.
* increased **muscle temperature** improves the **elasticity** of **intramuscular** **connective** **tissue.**
* **metabolic activity** in the muscle tissue is stimulated.
* **viscosity** within the muscles is **reduced**, allowing smoother and more efficient contractions with less resistance
* muscles are able to **exert greater** **power** under sub-maximal loads due to increased facilitation
* slow, gradual warm-up **reduces lactic acid** build up in the early part of exercising
* increased **speed** at which **nerve impulses** travel. This applies to the motor and sensory nervous pathways, improving general proprioceptive
activity
* the response of the heart to more strenuous exercise is improved significantly
* connective tissue has an enhanced ability to elongate and synovial fluid is secreted, lubricating joints, which should reduce the risk of injury to soft tissue structures
* mental preparation and a rehearsal effect
88
What types of warm-ups are there?
* passive warm-up
* active general warm-up
* active specific warm-up
89
What is a passive warm-up?
This is simply using some form of **external heating**, for example taking a **warm shower**, hot bath, using heat lamps, warm clothing or even pre-exercise massage. **Heart rate** can **increase** together **with blood pressure** and **increased circulation around the body**, but **skeletal** **muscle** will be relatively **unaffected**. Blood will be diverted towards the skin rather than the muscles.
90
What is active general warm up?
This method increases **body temperature** as the individual engages in **activities** that involve **large muscle groups** (e.g. callisthenics, jogging). This type of
warm-up **increases muscle temperature more effectively than the passive method.**
91
What is active specific warm up?
Specific warm ups involve the individual going through **basic movement pattern**s and using the **same muscle** groups as will **later be used in the activity**, only at a **reduced intensity**. This is an effective physiological and mental rehearsal of performance skill. The more power necessary for the sport or activity, the more crucial the warm-up phase
92
How can **all warm-up** methods be **combined**?
* A larger number of clothes than normal are worn in the form of layers as the performer undergoes a sequence of general joint mobilising activities and jogging (unless it is hot weather), beginning with low-intensity movements.
* As the individual becomes warmer, tracksuits are removed and the activity is progressively intensified until, towards the end of the warm-up sequence, the movements required for the performance skill are practised.
93
How long must a warm-up be?
* No hard and fast rules can be laid down regarding the intensity and duration of a warm-up programme, as this varies with individuals and fitness levels.
* 10-20 minutes is now the suggested ideal time, however, this may seem impractical to most exercisers.
* Warming up should not be too intense as physical performance may be impaired. The onset of sweating is generally indicative of the effectiveness of a warm up sequence.
* The warm-up should be adjusted according to the environment, regarding air temperature, humidity, space, etc.
94
What is the aim of the cooldown?
To return the body and mind to the pre-exercise state.
95
What are the objectives of a cool down?
* decrease the pulse rate
* decrease body temperature
* stretch muscles in an appropriate way
96
Why is cool down important?
Following an intense activity, blood has been diverted to working muscles and there is a tendency for the blood to ‘pool’ in the extremities, especially in the legs.
Light rhythmical activity involving the muscle groups used in the exercise session should be used in this cool down period, decreasing in intensity. This will aid venous return to the heart and help prevent pooling and consequent dizziness and nausea.
These low-intensity exercises disperse the lactic acid present
97
How does stretching during cool down help?
* Stretching activities during the cooldown would also seem to prevent muscle soreness following exercise.
* Gradually bringing the body back to normal also helps psychological wind-down and promotes mental relaxation at the end of the exercise session, allowing time to consider the feeling of satisfaction and benefit that exercise can bring.
* Here the stretches should be static. Some tight muscles will benefit from increased flexibility through developmental stretching.
98
By what is flexibility determined by?
Flexibility is determined by the **shape of the bones** and **cartilage** involved in the joint and by the **length of the muscles** that cross over the joint.
99
What can a significant lack of flexibility affect?
A significant lack of flexibility can dramatically affect posture and force production at a joint. It is normally seen as causing impaired and perhaps painful performance.
100
What can a high degree of flexibility lead to?
A high degree of flexibility or ‘hypermobility’ may also lead to an **increased incidence of injury**, but is required for success in disciplines such as gymnastics and martial arts.
101
What can cause muscle shortening?
* Jogging, football, boxing and hockey all involve movements where muscles are not worked through their full range. This can lead to muscle tightness and adaptive shortening.
* Muscle shortening can also result from poor posture or when a body part is immobilised in a plaster cast. An improper exercise that overdevelops one muscle group whilst neglecting the opposing group, results in an imbalance that restricts flexibility, e.g. quadriceps/hamstrings.
102
What are the benefits of flexibility training?
* Increased range of motion
* Reduced muscle tension and increased physical and mental relaxation
* Reduced risk of joint sprains or muscle strains
* Reduced risk of back problems
* Decreased muscular soreness (DOMS) associated with other exercise activities
* Decreased muscle viscosity, causing contractions to be easier and smoother
* Improved co-ordination by allowing for greater ease of movement
* Improvement and development of body awareness
* Improved capability for circulation and air exchange
* Improvements in posture
103
What factors affect flexibility?
* **Age**: Young people are normally more flexible than older people. Babies and infants are very flexible and start to lose this natural flexibility as soon as they start to walk (when the joints become weight-bearing and need more stability).
As we get older, muscle contractility remains, whilst elasticity is lost, resulting in tighter, stiffer muscles. There is also a reduction in activity levels as we age, which will cause a decrease in flexibility.
* **Gender**: Studies have shown females to be more flexible than males in most joints and to
remain so throughout adult life. The reasons for this are uncertain, but may be attributed to structural and anatomical differences or different activities and training experiences earlier in life.
* During pregnancy and in the post-natal period, women produce excess amounts of a hormone called relaxin to assist the birth process. The effects of relaxin are not restricted to solely the pelvic area, but act throughout the body, allowing greater flexibility than normal. Small levels of relaxin are constantly present, and will fluctuate
slightly throughout a normal menstrual cycle.
* **Temperature**: An increase in temperature due to either direct heat or the weather can increase the
elasticity of muscles and tendons and range of motion. Conversely, a decrease in temperature can result in a decrease in flexibility of as much as 20%
* **Exercise and resistance training**: Active people tend to be more flexible than those with a sedentary lifestyle.
* **Heredity:** Flexibility can be an inherited characteristic, as well as an acquired one. Some
people are born with a naturally excessive ROM. This can create a greater potential
for injury (i.e. joint dislocation) and it may be necessary to concentrate on
strengthening the muscles acting over the joint in order to increase stability.
* **Fashion**: Individuals who constantly wear high heels may find that the muscles of the lower limb (gastrocnemius, soleus) adaptively shorten over a period of time, therefore causing reduced ROM at the ankle joint.
104
Name the methods of stretching.
105
Explain **active stretching**.
* Active stretching is accomplished using **antagonist** muscles and **without assistance** from an external force or object.
* It involves **actively contracting one muscle** or muscle group in order to **stretch its opposin**g muscle group.
* For example, pectorals actively contract to stretch posterior deltoids and tibialis anterior actively contracts to stretch gastrocnemius.
106
Explain Passive stretching.
* This is where another body part or external factor, such as a wall or a partner, is used to facilitate the stretch. For example, a lying hamstrings stretch where the hands are held behind the thigh or on the calf. This method is used to increase joint range and muscle length.
* A training partner can assist by gently pressing parts of the subject’s body through full range. Great care and communication is required between partners
using this method and so it is not recommended for beginners.
107
What Types of stretches are there?
* Ballistic
* Dynamic
* Static maintenance
* Static developmental
108
What is a ballistic stretch?
This form of stretching involves q**uick, repetitive bouncing or bobbing actions**. It is undertaken in order to increase the stretch beyond the muscle’s normal range using momentum and body weight. It is generally considered **unacceptable** for the **average
exerciser**, due to the muscular damage that may occur as a result of the stretch reflex. These stretching exercises can produce muscle soreness and even losses in resilience and elasticity. However, they are**sometimes necessary**as a more radical method of stretching adhesions and stubborn fibrous tissue in**physiotherapy**and**rehabilitation**.
109
What is a Dynamic Stretch?
This is similar to ballistic stretching, however, the limb movements do not end with bouncing or jerky movements, but instead, are performed under control. These stretches should mimic the movements of the following sport or activity and act as a kind of rehearsal.
• perform 8-10 repetitions of each stretch under control, gradually increasing the ROM
110
Explain Static maintenance stretch.
Static maintenance stretching is where the muscle is taken to **the end of its normal range** and held **without bouncing**. These are short stretches, held for **10-15 seconds**, and are used to maintain the normal length of the muscle. Following repeated contractions during exercise, the muscle becomes shorter and thicker and
a maintenance stretch is used to return the muscle to its normal length.
* take the stretch to the point of bind, maintaining good alignment and posture
* hold for 10-15 seconds until the tension within the muscle has reduced
* repeat the stretch if desired
111
What is a Static developmental stretch?
These stretches are used to develop the length of the fibres themselves, thereby increasing range of movement at a joint. The following guidelines should be observed:
• take the stretch to the point of bind, maintaining good alignment and posture
• hold for 10-15 seconds, until the tension within the muscle has reduced
• relax and passively increase the ROM of the stretch until tension is felt again
• again hold for 10-15 seconds, until the tension within the muscle has reduced
• again increase the ROM of the stretch until tension is felt again
• hold until the tension reduces, then slowly return the limb to its normal position
• repeat the stretch if desired
112
When should we stretch?
Stretching should form an integral part of the warm up and cool down, although stretching can be performed at any time of the day, appropriate to the individual.
Individuals can be advised to stretch at home, watching TV, or at the office, in order to balance out periods of immobility in positions of poor posture.
**Dynamic stretching** can be more easily prescribed as part of the **warm-up**, using exercises that will **mimic** the general movement of the following session. Dynamic stretches should be performed after some kind of pulse-raising/temperature raising
warm up.
In the **cool down** part of the session, some kind of **static stretching** is advised. This may be static maintenance, static developmental, or a form of passive stretch.
113
What Contraindications for flexibility training are there?
* any developmental, excessive, uncontrolled or ballistic stretching should be avoided during pregnancy, due to the softening effects of relaxin
* if the movement is limited by a bony block
* avoid stretching a fracture site for approximately 8-12 weeks post-fracture
* any sharp pain occurring during a stretch
* any uncontrolled muscle cramping occurring during a stretch
* any infected joint or nearby tissue
* any acute inflammation, except for the majority of arthritic clients
* a local haematoma (bruise), resulting from an overstretch injury
* a client suffering from certain vascular or skin diseases
114
What are the six main training principles?
* Specificity
* Progressive overload
* Reversibility
* Adaptability
* Recovery
* Individuality
115
Explain the Training principles **Specificity**.
Any change or adaptation in the body’s muscles, organs and systems will be very specific to the type of training (stress) undertaken. This is the principle of specificity and means that if a participant wants to improve their running, they should run. Swimming will elicit very generalised improvements in their cardiorespiratory system, which may improve the running fitness. However, for the best results, that person should undertake running training.
116
Explain the Training principles **Progressive overload**.
* To evoke an adaptation response the stimulus must be large enough to challenge the individual.
* For example, improvements in range of movement can only be achieved by working at or beyond the current limits i.e. it should stretch the muscle and the client should feel this as a mild tension.
* Muscles only get stronger when they are required to work harder than normal.
117
What examples can be used for an adaptive response?
For an adaptive response, the following examples can be used as progressions:
• increase weight used
• increase number of repetitions
• increase number of sets
• decrease rest between sets
118
What is the Training principles **Reversibility?**
Cessation of the stimulus which caused the adaptation to occur will result in a gradual decline. This principle states, therefore, that any improvements in fitness can only be maintained by regular exercise.
119
What is the Training principles Adaptability?
the body will react in accordance with the type of overload to which it is subjected. For example, high weight low repetition exercise can lead to an increase in strength and intense exercise, lasting less than 10 secs can cause adaptations in the ATP-CP system, making it more efficient. Lower intensity longer duration activities help train the efficiency of the aerobic energy system.
120
What is the Training principles Recovery?
An important concept to grasp is that adaptations occur, not during the activity, but in the time following it. Therefore, scheduled rest periods are a vital part of any
exercise programme. This will include not only rest periods between exercises/sets within individual sessions but between the sessions themselves as well.
121
What is the Training principles Individuality?
* Although many clients may have similar general goals e.g. lose weight, get fitter, each is an individual with different physiological abilities e.g. ROM, current strength, CV level.
* a programme should be designed specific to both a client’s needs and their abilities.
* For example, a client may have a restricted ROM at their hips so the programme may include additional stretching exercises in this region. If a client has a goal of running a marathon, weight-bearing CV exercise could be seen as more appropriate than cycling or rowing.
122
The basic fitness variables can be summarised using...
F.I.T.T.
F - Frequency - how often
I - Intensity - how hard
T - Time - how long
T - Type - the type of training (e.g. strength, endurance)
123
Explain the fitness variable **Frequency**.
Frequency refers to the number of **training sessions per week, month or year**.
A typical example for a **beginner** may be to start with a **three times a week** schedule with a day’s rest in between.
Competitive athletes may train up to **twelve times a week**.
The number of exercise sessions per week should reflect current fitness level, time available, any other commitments like family, and goals.
124
Explain the fitness variable **Intensity**.
This is an important aspect to be considered when designing an exercise programme. It is normally monitored using % of 1RM, RPE or heart rate however there are additional factors that can influence the intensity:
* **Lever length**: a lever arm (sometimes referred to as a moment arm) is the perpendicular distance between a force’s line of action and an axis of rotation (e.g. a pivot).
* **Speed**: by increasing the speed of an exercise, intensity is increased e.g. a 100m sprint is a more intense activity than a marathon. Olympic lifts, such as the clean and jerk, where the objective is to lift the weight with maximum effort as quickly as possible is more intense than performing a bench press at a moderate tempo.
* **Gravity:It** can be increased by adding external weight through the use of free weights, which
in turn will increase intensity. An increase in body mass will also increase the effects of gravity.
* **Range of movement:** moving through a full range of movement during exercise is important, although there are potential risks to the connective tissues and joints when approaching end ranges particularly where momentum is involved.
125
Explain the fitness variable **Time**.
The amount of time dedicated to the session is largely dependent upon the type of exercise, fitness level and the amount of time the client is willing to dedicate to
exercise. When planning for cardiovascular training it is normally measured in minutes, whereas resistance training is usually measured in reps and sets.
126
Explain the fitness variable Type.
The mode or type of training may also be manipulated, as long as the specificity of the adaptation does not move away from the training goal. This can be done by
changing the aerobic exercise from running to cycling, for example, or the resistance exercise from a lateral raise to a shoulder press. Changing the type of exercise or
activity performed can be used to progress a programme and provide variety.
127
Why should the principles of progression and periodisation be applied?
To avoid any plateaus or decreases in performance
128
What does progression (in the principle of a progressive training programme) mean?
Progression means that when an overload is applied it should be gradual and sufficient enough to elicit an adaptation, but it should not be excessive
129
Why is Excessive stimulus counterproductive?
Excessive stimulus is counterproductive since it will lead to overreaching and maybe overtraining.
130
What is a prime example of excessive stimulus?
Excessive post-training muscular soreness, lasting up to 7-11 days after resistance training
131
What is Periodisation (within Principles of a progressive training programme)?
Periodisation is the planned progression and manipulation of the training variables over a prolonged period of time. Varying the intensities and types of training in phases or cycles can cause greater improvements in performance and decrease the risks of overtraining and injury
132
Who tends to make rapid progress initially once exposed to the exercise stimulus?
An untrained individual, as they have a great adaptation potential and are unfamiliar with any exercise stimulus
133
Name signs of Overtraining.
* sudden poor co-ordination
* lack of ability to concentrate
* reduction in performance
* irritability, over sensitivity to criticism
* reported disrupted sleep patterns
* general lethargy
* susceptibility to colds, illness
134
What is the recommended to reduce mortality frequency of training as per ACSM (1998)?
* Frequency 5-7 times a week
* Intensity 50-90% of MHR
* Time 30 minutes in total Type rhythmical use of large muscles
135
What is the recommended To maximise aerobic fitness and reduce mortality frequency of training as per ACSM (1990)?
* Frequency 3-5 times a week
* Intensity 60-90% of MHR
* Time 20-60 minutes
* Type continual, rhythmical use of large muscle groups
136
Define light activity.
Little or no exertion normally does not cause a noticeable change in breathing.
137
Define Moderate activity.
Requires sustained, rhythmic muscular movements at least the equivalent of brisk walking and leaves a person feeling warm and slightly out of breath.
138
Define Vigorous activity.
Requires sustained, large muscle movements at 60 to 70% or more of maximum heart rate, a level that makes a person sweaty and out of breath.
139
Why is monitoring exercise intensity necessary?
Monitoring exercise intensity is necessary to both the safety and effectiveness of the exercise session
140
Which are the methods of monitoring exercise intensity?
* heart rate
* rate of perceived exertion
* talk test
141
How to you estimate maximum heart rate?
220 beats per minute (bpm) – age (ACSM, 2000). With an error range of plus or minus 11 bpm
142
How do you determine Heart rate zones for your clients?
Example: Maximum heart rate = 194 Multiply 194 by 0.6 and 0.9 to get the lower and upper limits of the target heart rate zone:
194 x 0.6 and 194 x 0.9 = a target heart rate zone of 116 to 175 beats per minute (bpm)
143
What is RPE?
Rate of perceived exertion (RPE):
The response of the client should take into account all of the symptoms of exertion such as breathing, muscular fatigue and the subjective feeling of effort. The classic Borg scale given below rates effort between 6 and 20.
144
What is the talk test?
Though probably not as accurate as the previous methods, the Talk Test is nevertheless a simple method of gauging intensity that doesn’t require any equipment or learning.
* light activity Breathing lightly and talking easily, but heart rate has increased
* moderate activity Still talking comfortably, but breathing is deeper and quicker, body warming up
* vigorous activity (heavy increasing to very heavy) Breathing more deeply and harder, talking with a little more difficulty
145
What is the internationally recognised age when there is a significant reduction in the safety margins relating to exercise?
50 is the current internationally recognised age at which there is a significant reduction in the safety margins relating to exercise and when pre-exercise screening is essential to ensure exercise professionals meet their duty of care.
These best practice guidelines are for 50+ individuals who:
* are asymptomatic (i.e. determined by the pre-exercise completion and interpretation of one of the two recommended 50+ pre-exercise screening tools namely: Revised PARQ (PARQ-R) or the AHA/ACSM Health/Fitness Facility Pre-participation Screening Questionnaire)
* have little or no recent and frequent experience of the particular exercise modality
146
What is the approximate age at which the ageing process begins?
40
147
What happens at the age of 50?
50 is the age at which the progressive losses in the musculoskeletal/CV/neuromuscular systems
means that adaptation of exercise needs to be considered.
148
What is the loss in physical capacity with the losses in each of the body systems from the age of 40?
40) result in a corresponding 1-2% loss per year in physical capacity in:
• muscular strength (fewer, smaller and weaker fibres)
• power (fewer fast twitch, smaller, weaker and slower)
• bone density (thinner, more brittle bones and less ability to withstand fracture)
• aerobic endurance (fewer capillaries, less elastic vessels and reduced intake, uptake and utilisation of oxygen)
• balance and co-ordination (less sensory input and less postural stability, less co-coordination and less ability to prevent a trip turning into a fall)
• flexibility, agility and later mobility and transfer skills (stiffer joints, reduced range and ease of movement and less ability to perform activities of daily living (ADLs) e.g. get up and down from floor / chairs safely
In addition, there are:
Sensory declines including:
• reduced motor learning (slower motor learning)
• reduced visual and aural acuity (sight and hearing difficulties)
Cognitive declines including:
• poorer short term memory
149
What guidelines should be followed for adults age 50+ to be safe (i.e. to reduce/minimise the risk of adverse, age-related cardiovascular and articular system events to a minimum)?
* current International guidance (ACSM/AHA) recommends that all people over the age of 50 should complete a recommended pre-exercise health screening questionnaire (PARQ-R or AHA/ACSM) to establish whether they are asymptomatic and ready to participate or whether they should seek further medical assessment prior to participating in an exercise programme
* spend longer warming up and warm up more gradually than younger clients (i.e. to ensure a total of 15 minutes) and begin with moderate shoulder circles before increasing the shoulder ROM and progressing to arm circles. Clients should be advised to do this by taking responsibility for themselves e.g. by walking to the session or by coming early and warming up before the session
* build-in a longer, more gradually tapered cool down after the aerobic training. Clients should be advised to do this by taking responsibility for themselves e.g. by keeping going for a few minutes after the rest of the class have stopped and/or are changing to the next activity (i.e. to prevent/minimise the potential for adverse cardiovascular events)
* keep the intensity of all training components to a challenging but health-related level i.e. without pain or strain and within their individual ‘personal best training zone’ by using the talk-test and educating clients on the use of the RPE scale as a means of monitoring and regulating exercise intensity, as required (N.B. it should be challenging)
150
Further to the guidelines for adults 50+, what should the instructor encourage?
* ensure correct technique as it is even more important for injury prevention with this client group
* take more time during transitions e.g. floor to standing
* simplify exercise. When correct technique cannot be maintained and risk is increased e.g. when any weight-bearing steps involving laterally crossing one leg over the other (e.g. grapevine) are included in a group session, the instructor should use their professional judgement (including the clients current physical activity history) before giving suitable alternatives to the older person e.g. adapt the grapevine by bringing the feet together, and with turns of more than 90 degrees, breaking it down into stages can prevent dizziness until fitness improves
* learn new exercises with the easiest position and/or the lightest resistance and progress slowly initially
* avoid extreme spinal flexion (i.e. full or half curl-ups from supine) and make abdominal training more challenging and safer for the vertebrae by keeping the neck long, and if lifting off the floor, supported by the arm
151
What are the Key safety guidelines when working with pre and post-natal clients?
* Women who have **not** exercised **prior** to pregnancy should begin with 15 minutes continuous aerobic activity, increasing gradually to 30 minutes continuous low-moderate intensity aerobic activity.
* **Pregnant** women should maintain adequate **hydration** during exercise, avoid exercising in very hot or humid conditions, consume adequate calories, and restrict exercise sessions to no longer than 45 minutes, according to recommended guidelines.
* **Heart rate should not be used** to monitor exercise intensity during pregnancy. Women should be advised to exercise according to how they are **feeling** and encouraged to use the **talk test** to monitor appropriate, individual intensity.
152
What should pregnant woman avoid?
* exercising in the supine position after 16 weeks of pregnancy. The inclined position is unlikely to be a successful alternative to flat supine
* exercising prone
* prolonged, motionless standing
* heavy, uncontrolled, isometric or prolonged resistance work above the head
* leg adduction and abduction against a resistance
* isometric exercises
* loaded forward flexion
* rapid changes of direction or position
* uncontrolled twisting
* exercise with a risk of falling or abdominal trauma
* excessive and uncontrolled de-stabilisation techniques
153
Pregnant women should immediately stop exercising if they experience:
* dizziness, faintness or nausea
* bleeding or leakage of amniotic fluid
* abdominal or contraction type pain
* unexplained pain in the back, pelvis, groin, buttocks or legs
* excessive shortness of breath, chest pain or palpitations
154
Other pre and post-natal exercise considerations
* Hormonal and postural changes make pregnant women vulnerable to injury, joint misalignment, muscle imbalance and motor skills decline, especially if they are genetically hypermobile.
* women in the child-bearing period are habitually forward flexed with shoulder girdle protraction, thoracic kyphosis, long, weak upper back extensors, and short tight pectoral muscles and are prone to neck and shoulder pain.
* instructors should be aware that women in the childbearing period are vulnerable to injury, nausea, dizziness and fainting. Instructors should therefore have up-to-date first aid skills.
* Women should not begin exercising post birth until they have received the permission of their health
care professional, usually at the post-partum 6 to 8 week check.
* the physiological and postural changes of pregnancy persist post-birth for several months, making women vulnerable to injury and long-term physical health problems such as pelvic floor dysfunction. This has particular significance for exercise involving impact, twisting and rapid, ballistic or aggressive movements, which should be avoided for at least 6 months and introduced progressively.
* high intensity or impact exercise in pregnancy and post-birth carries the risk of long-term pelvic floor muscle (PFM) support and control dysfunction.
* ideally, post-birth, women should be encouraged to re-educate posture, joint alignment, muscle imbalances, stability, motor skills, transversus abdominis (TA) muscle recruitment and pelvic floor muscle function before progressing to more vigorous exercise.
* “sit up”, “crunch” or “oblique cross-over” type exercises are not an appropriate choice for abdominal muscle re-education post birth.\*
* \*for at least 12 months post-birth the rectus abdominis is mechanically weaker (Coldron, 2007). Excessive oblique’s training may cause downward pressure through the pelvic floor (O’Dwyer, 2008) and anatomically will probably cause a lateral pull on a weaker linea alba. TA and PFMs are unlikely to be recruiting effectively to provide adequate abdominal compression and support.
155
When should a woman be referred to a health professional in regards to post-birth symptoms?
When she is experiencing any of the following symptoms post-birth:
1. stress incontinence or pelvic floor muscle weakness
2. “dragging” pain or a feeling of heaviness in the lower abdominal or pelvic floor area
3. groin, low back pain or difficulty walking, even if mild and intermittent
4. abdominal muscle weakness, excessive abdominal doming, abdominal muscle separation or softness/sinking at the umbilical mid-line, umbilical hernia
156
What does The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) (1995) say?
It is unlawful to refuse to serve a disabled person, provide a lower standard of service, or offer a less favourable service to a disabled person. Service providers must make “reasonable adjustments” to their facilities and services so that they are accessible to disabled people. Adjustments to buildings and services must be made in expectation of attendance by disabled people; it is not reasonable for disabled people to be asked to wait until adjustments have been made. This may include providing extra help when required, but does not include automatically providing an additional service that is not required.
157
Exemption from the DDA is justified for the following reasons:
* if by meeting the needs of the disabled person the health and safety of any person, including the disabled person, is endangered
* if by serving the disabled person the service provider is unable to serve others (not including a delay or inconvenience to others)
* if the disabled person is unable to enter into a legally enforceable agreement, or give informed consent
* if providing a service to disabled people on the same terms as to other people means that it would not be possible to offer the service at all, or if a higher charge would have to be made to others
158
What to consider when your client has a progressive disability, e.g. multiple sclerosis?
Progressive disorders require careful monitoring to ensure that the exercise programme is not causing the condition to worsen (exacerbation).
159
What to consider when your client has an asymmetrical weakness e.g. stroke, cerebral palsy?
If there is a difference in strength between the left and right side of the body the instructor should aim to improve the affected side as much as possible without neglecting the side which is unaffected. However, if the nerves controlling the affected side have been partially or completely damaged, the ability to improve in the affected muscles is greatly reduced.
160
Explain Spasticity and how to train.
Spastic muscles are very tight or rigid. Since many individuals with physical disabilities will have some degree of spasticity, flexibility training is critical. However, before incorporating any flexibility in a programme the instructor should seek authorisation from a suitably trained medical authority on how to stretch a spastic muscle without causing injury.
161
Explain Neurological conditions, for example muscular dystrophy and how to train.
Muscles can become progressively weaker as a result of the decline in CNS functioning. To help offset this, the programme should try to work on general fitness levels. However, should there be any rapid decline in function the client should immediately be referred to their GP for guidance.
162
Explain Damage to sensory nerves and how to train.
This occurs with many types of physical disabilities. Since this may result in an inability to detect pressure against the skin, left untreated, this can result in a pressure sore. It is generally recognised that the use of a wheelchair increases the risk of developing pressure sores, and so the client will already be aware of the importance
of frequent checks. However, the instructor should also make the client aware that the use of gym equipment may also bring similar associated risks and so extra checks should be made.
163
Explain depression due to disability and what to consider.
Depression is a common secondary condition resulting from an individual’s physical and psychological challenges of living with a disability. Occasionally, depression can cause a person to drop out of the programme. It should be noted that these are only some of the common conditions the fitness professional who works with disabled people will experience and if they in any way doubt their abilities to work safely and effectively with anyone they should refer to a medical authority for guidance.
