Unit 6

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

Question 2

habituation

Answer 2

an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

Question 3

associative learning

Answer 3

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Question 4

classical conditioning

Answer 4

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Question 5

behaviorism

Answer 5

the view that psychology: (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Question 6

unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 6

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth

Question 7

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 7

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response

Question 8

conditioned response (CR)

Answer 8

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Question 9

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Answer 9

in classical conditioned, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

Question 10

acquisition

Answer 10

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Question 11

extinction

Answer 11

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when a unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant condition when a response is no longer reinforced

Question 12

spontaneous recovery

Answer 12

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Question 13

generalization

Answer 13

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit responses

Question 14

discrimination

Answer 14

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Question 15

learned helplessness

Answer 15

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Question 16

respondent behavior

Answer 16

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Question 17

operant conditioning

Answer 17

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished followed by a punisher

Question 18

operant behavior

Answer 18

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Question 19

law of effect

Answer 19

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Question 20

operant chamber

Answer 20

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water reinforce; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Question 21

shaping

Answer 21

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Question 22

reinforce

Answer 22

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Question 23

positive reinforcement

Answer 23

increasing behaviors by adding a desirable stimuli, such as food.

Question 24

negative reinforcement

Answer 24

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli, such as shock.

Question 25

primary reinforcer

Answer 25

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (food, water, removal of pain)

Question 26

conditioned reinforcer

Answer 26

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Question 27

continuous reinforcement

Answer 27

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Question 28

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 28

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 29

fixed-ratio schedule

Answer 29

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Question 30

variable-ratio schedule

Answer 30

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Question 31

fixed-interval schedule

Answer 31

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Question 32

variable-interval schedule

Answer 32

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Question 33

punishment

Answer 33

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Question 34

cognitive map

Answer 34

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)

Question 35

latent learning

Answer 35

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Question 36

insight

Answer 36

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Question 37

intrinsic motivation

Answer 37

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Question 38

extrinsic motivation

Answer 38

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Question 39

observational learning

Answer 39

learning by observing others (also social learning or vicarious conditioning)

Question 40

modeling

Answer 40

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 41

mirror neurons

Answer 41

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empath

Question 42

prosocial behavior

Answer 42

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Question 43

little Albert

Answer 43

subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear (trained to fear a rat).

Question 44

Albert Bandura

Answer 44

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

Question 45

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 45

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

Question 46

Rosalie Rayner

Answer 46

graduate student of Watson and co-researcher for the famous Little Albert demonstration of classically conditioned emotion

Question 47

Martin Seligman

Answer 47

researcher known for work on learned helplessness and learned optimism as well as positive psychology

Question 48

B.F. Skinner

Answer 48

pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. He is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pigeons and rats.

Question 49

Edward Thorndike

Answer 49

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.

Question 50

John Watson

Answer 50

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Question 51

biofeedback

Answer 51

Biofeedback is a technique that trains people to improve their health by controlling certain bodily processes that normally happen involuntarily, such as heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and skin temperature.

Question 52

stimulus

Answer 52

any event or situation that evokes a response

Question 53

respondent behavior

Answer 53

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Question 54

cognitive learning

Answer 54

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Question 55

neutral stimulus (NS)

Answer 55

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Question 56

discriminative stimulus

Answer 56

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Question 57

reinforcement schedule

Answer 57

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Question 58

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Answer 58

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 59

preparedness

Answer 59

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Question 60

instinctive drift

Answer 60

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Question 61

problem-focused coping

Answer 61

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

Question 62

emotion-focused coping

Answer 62

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

Question 63

personal control

Answer 63

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

Question 64

external locus of control

Answer 64

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

Question 65

internal locus of control

Answer 65

the perception that we control our own fate

Question 66

self control

Answer 66

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards