Unit 8: Environmental Management Flashcards
why is it all the same (209 cards)
1
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Definition of renewable energy
A
Energy from sources that naturally replenish
2
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Examples of renewable energy
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Solar, wind, HEP, biomass, geothermal
3
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Environmental impact of renewable energy
A
Low pollution, minimal greenhouse gases
4
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Availability of renewable energy
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Unlimited, continuously replenished
5
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Cost of renewable energy
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Initially hight but low long term maintenance costs
6
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Sustainability of renewable energy
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Highly sustainable for the future
7
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Energy storage of renewable energy
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Challenging, needs advanced technology
8
Q
Reliability of renewable energy
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Can be intermittent
9
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Impact on ecosystem of renewable energy
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Minimal disruption
10
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Examples in use of renewable energy
A
Solar farm, wind turbines and HEP dams
11
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Definition of non renewable energy
A
Energy form sources that are finite and deplete over time
12
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Examples of non renewable energy
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Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear
13
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Environmental impact of non renewable energy
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High pollution, significant greenhouse gases
14
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Availability of non renewable energy
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Limited, will eventually run out
15
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Cost of non renewable energy
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Generally cheaper upfront but high long term costs due to resource depletion and pollution
16
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Sustainability of non renewable energy
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Unsustainable, will run out
17
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Energy storage of non renewable energy
A
Easier to store, readily available in fossil form
18
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Reliability of non renewable energy
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More reliable and continuous supply when available
19
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Impact on ecosystem of non renewable energy
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Significant disruption
20
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Examples in use of non renewable energy
A
Power plants using coal, oil rigs, nuclear reactors
21
Q
Energy consumption influence on economic growth
A
Energy is required for all aspects of an economy including powering industries, transportation, homes and services. The exponential increase in energy consumption has been driven by industrialisation, population growth and technological advancements but this has led to concerns over energy security, disparities in availability and environmental degradation. Countries with abundant energy resources have higher living standards and more developed industries. The decreasing availability of these resources has led to concerns for regions that are heavily reliant on fossil fuels. As countries industrialise, demand for energy reises leading to increased competition. Energy shortages can lead to economic and social consequences
22
Q
Challenges of energy security
A
Energy security is the uninterrupted availability of energy at an affordable price. It is more of a concern for countries that rely on imported energy. Insecurity can lead to economic instability, political tension and conflict. Security is also concerned with managing the risks associated with supply disruptions, price volatility and reliance on foreign sources. Countries without resources seek to diversify imports to reduce dependency on one supplier. Leads to conflict as nations want control over critical resources to be less vulnerable
23
Q
Energy poverty
A
Refers to the lack of access to modern energy services. Reliance on biomass can lead to indoor pollution, a major health hazard. Energy poverty especially affects rural areas where infrastructure for electricity distribution is underdeveloped. Without electricity access economic opportunities are limited, education and healthcare suffers and living conditions are poorer. Providing access to affordable, reliable and sustainable energy is a central UN goal which will require significant investment in energy infrastructure and technology especially in renewable sources that can be used in remote areas
24
Q
Renewable energy to address global challenges
A
Renewable sources are abundant and evenly distributed since they can be harnessed in nearly every region making them key to diversifying the global energy mix and reducing reliance on imports. Many countries transition to renewable sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The intermittent nature of renewables means that energy storage and grid infrastructure needs to improve to ensure a reliable supply. Initial costs are also high but these are decreasing as technology advances
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Global energy mix inequalities
The global energy mix is the combination of different energy sources to meet demands. Fossil fuels still dominate but renewable sources are increasingly important to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. Some countries are rich in fossil fuels and others have limited access to rely heavily on imports. This distribution can exacerbate economic disparities and contribute to energy poverty where households or regions lack access to reliable and affordable energy
26
Energy demand variations
Several factors influence national energy demand including population size and industrialisation. Economic growth raises energy needs since wealthier societies consume more. Climate also matters since colder countries need more heating and hot countries need more cooling. Technology and efficiency impact demand since advanced economies are more efficient. Urbanisation increases energy demand for infrastructure
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Global variations in energy supply
Energy resource endowment is a countries richness in energy resources. Having resources does not necessarily mean a good supply. Must also have the technology, expertise and capital to exploit and either use or sell them
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Physical factors affecting energy supply
Fossil fuel deposits are only found in a few places
Wind power needs high wind speeds throughout the year
Availability of biomass varies with climate
Large HEP development requires high precipitation, steep valleys and impermeable rock
Large power stations require flat land and stable foundations
Solar power needs a lot of days with strong sunlight
Tidal power stations require a large tidal range
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Political factors affecting energy supply
Countries wanting to develop nuclear require permission
International agreements can influence energy decisions
HEP on international rivers requires agreement of the other countries
Emission legislation will favour the use of more sustainable materials
Governments may insist on companies producing a certain amount from renewables
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Economic factors affecting energy supply
In poor countries FDI is essential for resource development
HEP sites close to transport and electricity routes are more economic than rural ones
Onshore oil and gas is cheaper to develop than offshore
When energy prices rise countries increase spending on research and development
Most accessible and low cost fossil fuel deposits are developed first
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Technological development change in energy use
Nuclear electricity has only been available since 1954
Oil and fas can now be extracted from much deeper waters
Renewable energy technology is advancing steadily
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Increasing national wealth change in energy use
As average incomes increase, living standards rise which involves an increasing use of energy and the use of a greater variety of resources
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Changes in demand change in energy use
One, all the UK trains were coal powered and most homes were heated by coal. Before natural gas was discovered in the North Sea, Britain's gas was produced form coal
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Changes in price change in energy use
Relative prices of different energy types can influence demand. Electricity production in the UK is switching from coal to gas over the last 20 years because power stations are cheaper to run on natural gas
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Environmental factors and public opinion change in energy use
Public opinion can influence government decisions. People are more informed about the environmental impact of energy sources than before
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Trends in energy consumption
Oil, coal and natural gas hold the greatest share of global primary energy. Oil has been trending downwards from 2000 to 2020 from 37% to 32%. It then rose slightly up to 2022. Nuclear and hydroelectricity both accounted for about 6% of global primary energy in 2000. Nuclear has since declined while hydroelectricity has been relatively constant. The growth of other renewables has been rapid from 2012 at 0% to 8%. There was a slight decrease in the world consumption of oil, coal and natural gas in 2020. Coal peaked in consumption in 2010 and has been falling steadily since
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Global energy trends
Oil, coal and natural gas dominate global energy mix but shares are declining as the world transitions to cleaner energy. Asia remains highly dependent on coal while natural gas plays a pivotal role in North America and Europe. The share of renewables is growing rapidly in all regions. Europe and Asia are the leaders in this shift while other regions are using clean energy. Nuclear and hydro provide reliable, low carbon energy but growth is regionally dependent. Nuclear is concentrated in North America, Europe and Asia while hydro is important in South America
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Links between patterns and development
Developed countries use a wider mix of sources. They can invest in domestic energy potential and import energy. Nuclear is unattainable for many because of high set up costs. Some countries can afford it but choose not to. Richer nations can afford to invest more in renewables. In the poorest countries fuelwood is an important source of energy
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Global pattern of per capita energy consumption
In general more developed countries like the USA and most of Europe have higher energy consumption. Africa tends to have a significantly lower energy consumption. Higher energy consumption per capita is also in the Northern Hemisphere. Countries including Qatar and the UAE have very high energy consumption per capita as well as most of the Middle East. The lowest energy use is in Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern Asia and Bolivia. Iceland and Sweden also have one of the highest energy consumption per capita
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Social progress vs energy
Strong positive correlation. Switzerland, Sweden and Norway have high social progress and relatively high energy consumption. Iceland has the highest energy use and high social progress. Countries below the perfect line have lower development than expected when compared to energy use. UAE, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia have some of the highest energy uses but relatively lower social progress. Indonesia, Mexico and the USA are on the line of correlation so use the correct or expected amount of energy with respect to social progress
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Advantages of natural gas
Lower CO2 emissions
Versatile
Reliable
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Disadvantages of natural gas
Methane emissions
Price volatility
Resource endowment disparity
Infrastructure costs
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History of global natural gas production
In the early 20th century natural gas was primarily a by-product of oil extraction. Its use grew as infrastructure and storage developed. Post WWII the demand for natural gas increased significantly in Europe and the US for heating and electricity. In the 2000's the US shale gas boom revolutionised production making it a leading producer and exporter. Global LNG trade expanded allowing it to reach other markets
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Geopolitical impacts of natural gas
The US transformed from a major importer to exporter reshaping markets and reducing Europe's reliance on Russian natural gas
The Russian invasion of Ukraine highlighted the dependence on them leading to a shift to other LNG resources from the US and Qatar
Countries with rich natural gas reserves use exports as geopolitical tools
Long term climate goals require a shift towards renewables which requires gas rich nations to diversify their economies
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Advantages of oil
High energy density
Versatility
Infrastructure
Energy security for producers
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Disadvantages of oil
Environmental impact
Finite resource
Geopolitical risks
Air pollution
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History of global oil production
In the 20th century there was the discovery of large oil fields. The demand for oil surged with the rise of industrialisation. Post WWII oil became the dominant source of global energy driving rapid economic growth especially in developed nations. In the 1970s the Arab oil embargo and Iranian Revolution caused prive spikes highlighting the worlds dependency on oil. In the 2000's the US shale oil revolution reduced American dependency on imports altering global dynamics. Growing consumption in China and India has shifted demand towards Asia
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Geopolitical impacts of oil
OPEC nations have significant influence over global oil prices
The US shale boom enhanced American energy security and reduced dependence on imports
Fluctuations in oil production can impact the stability of oil dependent economies affecting energy prices
Many developing countries rely on oil revenue and high prices can strain importing LICs
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Advantages of coal
Abundance
Cost effective
Established technology
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Disadvantages of coal
High CO2 emissions
Air pollution
Environmental degradation
Health risks
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History of global coal production
In the 19th century coal was the backbone of the industrial revolution powering factories, steam engines and electricity generation. In the mid 20th century oil and natural gas become more widely used so coals dominance delince. In the 2000's coal use surged in China and India due to industrialisation and energy needs
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Geopolitical impacts of coal
Coal rich countries benefit from energy independence but have to balance economic growth with climate commitments
Countries with vast coal reserves have large export revenue but face international pressure to reduce coal use
Cost consumption in developing nations can conflict climate agreements leading to tension
Advances in clean coal technology can carbon capture are expensive
53
Shale oil
Shale oil is locked in permeable sedimentary rocks. Extracting it by fracking is more expensive than crude oil but less expensive than deep water oil. There are major shale oil deposits in USA, Russia, China and Argentina
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Fracking
Water is mixed with sand and chemicals and then injected under pressure into a well to create fractures in the rock. The high pressure water is used to free the oil
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Advantages of fracking
Allows firms access to hard to reach resources
Can help make nations more independent and less reliant on fuel imports
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Disadvantages of fracking
Uses a lot of water that has to be transported
Chemicals may contaminate groundwater
Causes small earthquakes
Distracts firms from investing in renewables
Energy intensive
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Factors influencing how important shale oil will be in the future
Difficulty and expense of extraction which depends on geology, how thick they are and the degree to which they are broken by faults and joints
How remote and accessible the deposits are
Depth of deposits
Size of deposits
World oil prices which determine the viability of oil developments
Local and global demand and need for countries to be energy secure
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Locations of oil production and consumption
Oil is not evenly distributed around the world and is concentrated in specific regions. Major oil producing regions have abundant natural resources due to historical geological processes while many oil consuming countries lack significant domestic production. Highly industrialised nations consume large amounts of oil to fuel their economies, transportation and industry whereas oil rich countries have smaller domestic demand but export their surplus. Economic growth, industrialisation and lifestyle drive high oil consumption in developed nations while demand in developing countries is increasing. Geopolitical factors, government policies and technological advances further shape the disparity between production and consumption regions
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Reserves to production ratio
A measure used to estimate how long a countries known oil reserves will last at the current rate of production. Gives an indication of how many years the remaining oil reserves can sustain current production levels
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Importance of predicting peak oil production
Important because it has major economic, energy security and environmental implications. A decline in oil production after the peak could lead to shortages, driving up prices and causing economic disruptions. Countries that are reliant on imports could face energy crises so need to diversify energy sources and invest in renewables. Governments need to plan for long term energy investments and avoid economic shocks. As oil production declines there may be an opportunity to accelerate the shift to renewables and reduce dependency on fossil fuels to mitigate climate change. The decline in oil could lead to geopolitical tension or reliance on other polluting sources exacerbating environmental challenges
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Why peak oil predictions vary
Uncertainty in reserve estimates
Technological advancements
Demand fluctuations
Geopolitical and economic factors
Environmental and regulatory constraints
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Changes in production of coal
Increase in production due to strong demand from rapidly industrialising countries. Still used despite climate concerns due to availability and low cost. By 2012 it was still the most widely used energy source for electricity
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Changes in production of oil
Moderate growth in production due to steady demand for transport fuels especially in developing countries. Discovery of new reserves and technology also boosted production. Oil remained vulnerable to geopolitical events and dominance was challenged
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Changes in production of natural gas
Strong increase in production due to new technology and became attractive due to lower carbon emissions. Share in energy mix increased especially in electricity for transition to renewables
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Changes in production of nucelar
Limited growth since while some countries explored nuclear programs, others phased them out. Public concerns also hindered expansion
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Changes in production of hydro
Steady increase in production especially in regions with abundant water and investing developing nations. Used to diversify energy mixes and reduce reliance on fossil fuels
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Changes in global production of natural gas
The Middle East saw the greatest increase of 122% compared to Europe and Eurasia with the smallest increase of 7%. The total world production increased by 33% which is just less than the increases of South America, Africa and Asia Pacific of 64%, 56% and 63% respectively. North America has one of the smallest increases of 7%
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World coal reserves
Coal production is dominated by the Asia Pacific region. Much of this is produced in China. Consumption is also led by the Asia Pacific. Total global reserves declined from 2002-2012. The reserves to production ratio is significantly below the Asia Pacific than other regions. Reserves can be depleted in a relatively short time period. Electricity from coal gasification is more expensive than traditionally. Clean coal technology has developed forms of coal that burn more efficiency and capture pollutants before they are released
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Disadvantages of nuclear power
Nuclear accidents
Radioactive waste and storage disposal
High initial and decommissioning costs
Limited fuel supply
Global security risks
Possible increase in cancers around nuclear plants
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Advantages of nuclear power
Low greenhouse gas emissions
High energy density
Reliable and efficiency power generation
Reduced dependence on fossil fuels and imports
Small land footprint
Not as vulnerable to fuel price fluctuations
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Overall global renewables capacity
In general, overall renewable energy capacity has increased over time up to 3870 GW in 2023. 2023 has seen the largest annual increase in capacity since 2010. The smallest annual increases were around the 2010 to 2014 period. The renewable energy capacity started at 1224 GW in 2010 and has increased at a relatively constant rate since
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Global renewable production over time
In 1965 hydropower made up the majority of renewable energy production. Other renewables were introduced more around 2000 and wind started to make more of a contribution before solar but both were around 2010. Hydropower has increased from about 1000 TW to 4000 TW while total renewable production exceeded 8000 TWh in 2023
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Traditional sources of energy
Coal
Oil
Gas
Nuclear
HEP
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New sources of energy
Wind power
Biofuel
Geothermal
Solar
Tidal
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Fuelwood
Crucial energy source in many developing countries especially in rural areas. It provides a significant portion of energy needs for cooking and heating due to affordability and accessibility. COntributes to deforestation and forest degradation especially when harvested unsustainability. Can lead to habitat loss, soil erosion and loss of biodiversity. Burning fuelwood in traditional stoves releases smoke and particulate matter leading to indoor pollution which is a health risk contributing to respiratory diseases especially for women and children
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Solutions to fuelwood
Burning fuelwood releases CO2 but the impact on net emissions can be less than fossil fuels if the wood is sourced from sustainable forestry practices. Unsustainable harvesting can cause carbon loss from deforestation. In some areas there is a transition to cleaner, more efficient energy like liquefied petroleum gas, biogas and solar. This aims to reduce reliance on fuelwood and improve health and environmental sustainability
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HEP technology
Generated by capturing the energy from flowing or falling water using turbines connected to generators through kinetic energy being converted to mechanical energy. It is the most established renewable energy source
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HEP timeline
1880s: The first HEP plants were built
20th century: Large scale dams like the Hoover Dam were constructed
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HEP current production and global distribution
It generates about 1300 GW globally contributing to about 16% of the worlds electricity
Top producers are China with the Three Gorges Dam, Brazil and Canada
Norway generates most of its electricity from HEP
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HEP advantages
Reliable and consistent
Can store for peak demand
No emissions during operation
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HEP disadvantages
Environmental impact of damming
Limited suitable locations
High upfront costs
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HEP future potential
In the future HEP will continue to play a role with innovations like pumped storage hydro and small scale hydro gaining attention
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Wind technology
Wind energy is generated using turbines that convert kinetic energy of wind into electrical power. Modern turbines are highly efficient and come in both onshore and offshore configurations
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Wind timeline
1887: The first wind turbines for electricity generation were invented
1980s: The technology began to be used on a larger scale
2000s: Wind energy saw rapid growth due to concerns over climate change and advances in turbine design
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Wind current production and global distribution
Produces around 900 GW globally making up about 6% of the worlds electricity generation. Top producers are China, the USA and Germany. Offshore wind is particularly prevalent in the UK and Denmark
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Wind advantages
Clean and renewable
Doesn't take up much ground space
Offshore farms have high energy capacity
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Wind disadvantages
Intermittent
Can affect local wildlife
Noise and visual impct
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Wind future potential
Wind energy has significant future potential especially with floating offshore wind farms and improvements in turbine efficiency
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Biomass technology
Biomass energy is derived from organic materials like wood, agricultural residues and animal waste which can be burned directly or converted into biofuels for energy production
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Biomass timeline
Ancient times: Humans have used biomass for heating and cooking
20th century: Development of biofuels and modern biomass for power plants
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Biomass current production and global distribution
Produces about 600 GW of energy globally contributing about 5% of the global electricity generation. Top producers are the USA, Brazil and Germany. Scandinavian countries use biomass extensively for heating
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Biomass advantages
Reduces waste, can be carbon neutral
Provides renewable energy
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Biomass disadvantages
Competes with food production
Emissions from combustion
Deforestation if not sourced sustainably
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Biomass future potential
Advances in bioenergy with carbon capture and storage and second generation biofuels are likely to increase biomass' role in a carbon neutral system
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Geothermal technology
Harnessed by tapping into heat within the earth either for direct heating or to generate electricity using steam from underground reservoirs
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Geothermal timeline
1904: The first geothermal plant was built in Italy
1970s: Commercial geothermal power plants started expanding
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Geothermal current production and global distribution
Produces about 15 GW which is less than 1% of global electricity but is growing. Top producers are the USA, the Philippines and Indonesia. Iceland is notable for its reliance on geothermal energy
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Geothermal advantages
Continuous base load supply
Minimal emissions
Small land footprint
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Geothermal disadvantages
Limited to active regions
High initial investment costs
Risk of inducing seismic activity
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Geothermal future potential
Has high growth potential in regions with suitable geology and technologies like enhanced geothermal systems aim to expand its use in non-traditional areas
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Solar technology
Generated by converting sunlight into electricity using photovoltaic cells or by concentrating solar power systems that use mirrors to focus sunlight to generate heat which is then used to produce electricity
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Solar timeline
1950s: First practical solar cells were developed
1970s: Solar power began to gain attention during the oil crises
2000s: Significant improvements in PV technology and manufacturing led to widespread adoption of solar power plants
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Solar current production and global distribution
Solar energy produces 1000 GW of electricity globally which is about 4% of global electricity production. China is the largest producer then the USA and India. Europe also contributes significantly especially Germany and Spain
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Solar advantages
Renewable and abundant
Reduced dependence on fossil fuels
No emissions during operation
Low operational costs
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Solar disadvantages
Intermittent production
Large areas needed for insolation
High upfront costs
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Solar future potential
Has immense potential due to dropping costs and increased efficiency. Recent developments include perovskite solar cells and solar storage integration
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General trends in energy consumption
Fossil fuel consumption generally remains dominant but the growth rate has slowed in HICs as they transition to renewable energy. LICs have limited access to nuclear power focussing more on HEP due to resource availability. MICs see substantial increases in renewable energy investment especially in wind and biofuels. HICs show a significant shift towards renewables with wind energy and biofuels seeing large increases by 2023
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Causes of the trends in energy consumption
Deindustrialisation, increasing energy efficiency and relatively low population growth in HICs has resulted in a decrease in primary energy. In MICs, growth rates were considerable and consistent with high rates of economic growth. Most LICs struggle to fund energy requirements but do increase. Energy is vital for economic growth and to satisfy the demands of a growing population. There is a strong positive correlation between GNP per person and economy use. In poor countries it is the high and middle income groups that can buy enough energy and tend to live where electricity is available. It is the poor who lack access to the advantages of electricity
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Trends in fossil fuel consumption
In 2000 consumption in LICs was minimal due to limited industrialisation and infrastructure. By 2023 slight increases were seen reflecting some economic growth and increased urbanisation. Overall use remains low due to limited access to resources and infrastructure
In MICs demand grew from 2000 to 2010 reflecting rapid industrialisation, urbanisation and energy needs. They have been reliant on coal and oil but some have begun to diversify
HICs historically relied on fossil fuels but there has been a decline in the last decade due to a shift to cleaner energy sources, energy efficiency and a fall in coal consumption
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Trends in nuclear power consumption
LICs have little presence due to high costs and technical expertise being required. They have focussed on other forms of energy
MICs have been more reliant reflecting efforts to diversify and reduce reliance on coal
HICs have been significant historically but mixed recently
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Trends in renewables consumption
LICs roles especially HEP has been more prominent. Challenges like political instability have slowed progress
MICs have seen substantial growth driven by environmental goals and reducing fossil fuel imports
HICs have been leaders in renewables driven by climate policies and financial resources
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Drivers of change in energy consumptions
Economic development and industrialisation
Policy and climate commitments
Energy resource availability
Technological advancements
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Local impacts of energy
Power plants release pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides causing smog and respiratory issues
Oil spills during extraction or transportation can contaminate local water sources harming aquatic life
Mining for coal, drilling for oil or building wind farms cna destroy local habitats and disturb wildlife
Wind turbines and transport vehicles can cause noise pollution affecting nearby communities and wildlife
Mining activities can lead to soil erosion and loss of fertile land
Release of warm water from power plants into rivers or lakes can alter local water temperatures affecting ecosystems
Large scale energy projects can displace local communities and wildlife affecting livelihoods
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Global impacts of energy
Burining fossil fuels releases CO2, a greenhouse gas that contributes to globa warming
Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to more absorption by oceans making them more acidic which threatens marine life
Energy projects can lead to deforestation reducing biodiversity and increasing CO2 levels
The warming of the planet causes polar ice caps to melt leading to rising sea levels and threatening coastal areas globally
Air pollutants can travel long distances contributing to acid rain and health problems even far from the source
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Impact of energy pathways
Energy pathways are supply routes between energy producers and consumers like pipelines, shipping routes and electricity cables. New pathways are constructed as firms search further afield. Some major oil and gas pipelines cross the most inhospitable terrain. Subsidence can cause temporary closure
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Micro hydro shcemes
Work by taking water out of the river at a high altitude and diverting the water through a turbine which then generates electricity. The water removed from the river flows back into the channel at a lower altitude
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Advantages of micro hydro schemes
They are many times cheaper than dam construction HEP projects. The lack of dam also means that there is no social impact in re locating populations. They use simple intermediate technology so it is straightforward and cheap to maintain and this can be done by trained locals. In dam based schemes many engineers are required to keep the operation working. They can also be flexible to the needs of local communities. They can charge batteries which can then be distributed to houses. The batteries are returned when they need re charging. Electricity can be provided to many without the need for cables or can drive machinery directly
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Small scale solar power
Many developing countries due to their location have vast solar potential. Solar power is more expensive than using fossil fuels currently. The issue is the lack of access to form grid systems so batteries are needed to store the electricity created. This is expensive and will have a shorter useful life than a solar panel.
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Small scale wind power
Common in developed countries to generate sustainable power. There is a trend of construction in developing countries and in parts of developed countries that do not have formal grid systems. They work by generating electricity and storing power in batteries. Batteries are vital since the turbine only generates power when its windy. Small wind turbines don't generate as much energy as solar power. Solar power also requires much less maintenance
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Environmental degredation
Refers to the deterioration of the natural environment through human activities such as deforestation, pollution, climate change and the overuse of natural resources. It leads to the loss of biodiversity, the destruction of ecosystems and the depletion of natural resources, negatively impacting the health of the planet and its inhabitants
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Pollution
The introduction of harmful substances or contaminants into the environment such as air, water or soil. These can come from human activities like industrial processes, waste disposal and vehicle emissions and can harm ecosystems, human health and the planet's natural resources
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Significance of air pollution
Air pollution is responsible for 7 million premature deaths each year. Fine particulate matter which can penetrate deep into the lungs and bloodstream is linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. People are especially vulnerable to pollution in urban areas. Children, the elderly and those with pre existing health conditions are more at risk as long term exposure leads to reduced lung development in children
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Pattern of air pollution
The most deaths due to air pollution occur in Asia, especially in China, Mongolia and other Southeast Asian countries. Southern Africa has the least number of deaths due to air pollution with the most being 0-30 per million per country. Northern Africa has more but not as many as in Asia. North and South America both have about 60-100 per million deaths per country. Western Europe has even less than this but Eastern Europe matches that of Russia and North West Asia
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Causes of air pollution
Vehicle emissions
Industrial smoke and gases
Deforestation
Agricultural practices
Burning fossil fuels
Waste burning
Construction and mining
Household activities
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Solutions to air pollution
Increase use of public transport and EVs
Enforce stricter environmental regulations for factories
Reforestation and better land management
Implement cleaner farming practices
Promote the use of renewable energy sources
Improve waste management and recycling programs
Use cleaner, more efficient construction techniques
Encourage the use of clean cooking technologies
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Industrial pollution
Fuel and power (power stations, oil refineries)
Mineral industries (cement, glass, ceramics)
Waste disposal (incineration, chemical recovery)
Chemicals (pesticides, pharmaceuticals, organic and inorganic compounds)
Metal industries (iron and steel, smelting, non-ferrous metals)
Others such as paper manufacture, timber preparation and uranium processing
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Sulphur dioxide air pollution
Industry
Respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses
Precursor to acid rain which damages lakes, rivers, trees and cultural relics
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Nitrous oxide air pollution
Vehicles and industry
Respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses
Nitrogen deposition causing overfertilisation and eutrophication
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Particulate matter air pollution
Vehicles and industry
Particles penetrate lungs and can enter bloodstream
Visibility
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Carbon monoxide air pollution
Vehicles
Headaches and fatigue more with weak cardiovascular he
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Lead air pollution
Vehicles
Accumulates in bloodstream and damages nervous system
Kills fish and animals
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Ozone air pollution
Formed from reaction of NO and VOCs
Respiratory illnesses
Reduced crop production and forest growth, smog precursor
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Volatile organic compounds air pollution
Vehicles and industry
Eye and skin irritation, nausea, headaches, carcinogenic
Smog precursor
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Environmental Kuznets curve
Shows relationship between environmental degradation and GDP per capita, mainly that it peaks in industrial economies and begins to decline after
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Externality pollution gradient and scale
Shows that environmental impact decreases with distance from industry location
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Incidental pollution
Refers to short term, accidental or one-off events that lead to pollution often as a result of an unexpected spill, natural disaster or malfunction. Examples include oil spills, chemical accidents or volcanic eruptions. Can cause significant environmental damage but impacts tend to be temporary and the pollution may decrease once the incident is contained or natural processes begin to break down the contaminants
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Sustained pollution
Caused by ongoing, continuous human activities like industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust and agricultural runoff. This persists over long periods, accumulating and degrading the environment steadily. Often leads to long term damage, contributing to issues like climate change, air quality problems and soil degradation. Requires more systematic changes to reduce its ongoing impact
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Acid rain formation
Forms when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides primarily from burning fossil fuels combine with water vapour in the atmosphere. This create sulfuric acid and nitric acid which fall to the ground as acidic precipitation
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Environmental impact of acid rain
Harms ecosystems by acidifying soil and water bodies which can lead to harmful effects on plant life, fish and aquatic organisms. It disrupts the natural balance of pH in rivers, lakes and forests making it harder for certain species to survive and reproduce
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Acid rain damage to infrastructure
Acid rain also accelerates the corrosion of buildings and infrastructure especially those made from limestone, marble and metal. Over time the acidity can erode these materials leading to the deterioration of monuments, bridges and other structures especially in urban areas with high pollution levels
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Increased UV radiation and skin cancer
Air pollution especially the depletion of the ozone layer allows more UV radiation from the sun to reach the Earth's surface. UV radiation is a major risk factor for skin cancer as it can damage skin cells and increase the likelihood of mutations that lead to cancer especially melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers
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Airborne pollutants and skin health
Some air pollutants such as fine particulate matter and volatile organic compounds can have direct harmful effects on the skin These can contribute to skin aging, inflammation and even skin cancer by damaging skin cells and increasing oxidative stress
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Rising skin cancer rates
As air pollution has increased, so have the rates of skin cancer. WHO links rising skin cancer rates to the combined effects of increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion and long term exposure to polluted air which weakens the skin's natural defenses against cancer causing agents
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Global health risk of air pollution
7 million premature deaths are caused each year due to air pollution. One of the leading environmental health risks worldwide
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Sources of air pollution
Primarily caused by emissions from vehicles, industrial processes, agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels. The pollutants can cause or exacerbate respiratory diseases, cardiovascular problems and cancer. Long term exposure to PH2.5 has been linked to asthma, heart diseases, stroke and lung cancer
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Problems with transitioning to renewable energy for air pollution
This can drastically reduce emissions from power plants which are among the largest sources of air pollution worldwide. It is gaining momentum in HICs but the transition is expensive, requiring large investment in new infrastructure. Some countries have large fossil fuel industries that are integrated into the economy making it politically challenging to phase out
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Impact of air pollution on HICs
Have more controlled air pollution due to stricter laws and regulations. There is still pollution in urban areas from transport and industry especially in high traffic periods. They can afford to invest in cleaner technology and infrastructure
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Impact of air pollution on MICs
Have higher air pollution levels and regulations are not as strict. Rapid urbanisation, industrialisation and vehicle ownership have led to dangerously high pollution. They struggle to balance economic development with environmental protection and the enforcement of regulations may be weak especially in informal settlements where people rely on inefficient energy sources
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Impact of air pollution on LICs
Are the most vulnerable to air pollution. There is limited access to clean energy and people rely on biomass for cooking and heating. This creates indoor pollution which kills over 4 million per year especially in rural areas. They lack financial resources to invest in cleaner technology and it is a growing problem when cities expand without adequate infrastructure
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Effects of air pollution on different populations
Children, the elderly and those with pre-existing health conditions are especially vulnerable. Can lead to developmental issues in children, reducing lung capacity and measuring susceptibility to chronic illness. The elderly are at higher risk of respiratory problems. For those with asthma even short term exposure can be life threatening
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Water security
Ensuring sustainable access to adequate quantities of clean water for health, livelihoods and ecosystems which contributes to human well-being, economic development and resilience to water related risks
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Groundwater
Water found underground stored in spaces within rocks and soil which can be accessed by digging wells. A key source of freshwater
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Aquifers
Natural underground areas where groundwater is stored. Can be trapped for drinking water, farming and industry
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Water stressed areas
Places where there isn't enough water to meet the needs of people and the environment. Often happens in areas with high demand, little rainfall or overuse of water
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Water scarce areas
Regions facing severe water shortages usually in deserts or very dry areas where there is not enough water available for peoples basic needs
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Green water
Water that is stored in the soil and used by plants. This is water that comes from rainfall and is important for crops and natural vegetation
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Blue water
Freshwater found in rivers, lakes and groundwater sources. Its the water used for drinking, irrigation and industry
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Potable water
Water that is safe for humans to drink because it has been cleaned to remove germs and harmful substances
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Physical water scaracity
When there isn't enough natural water in an area to meet everyone's needs often because of a dry climate or overuse of water
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Economic water scarcity
When there's enough water in a region but people can't access it because of a lack of infrastructure, resources or money to supply and store it
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Virtual water
The amount of water used to make products. A lot of water goes into growing cotton for a shirt or producing wheat
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Precipitation to water
Over half the precipitation that falls on land is never available for capture of storage because it evaporates from the ground (green water). The remainder channels into blue water sources. Farm irrigation from these is the biggest human use of freshwater. 56% of precipitation flows through landscape and 36% ends up in oceans. 5.1% is used for agriculture, 1.4% for irrigation, 1.3% is evaporated and 0.1% by cities and industries
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Ways water is used in HICs
Agriculture accounts for just over 40% of total water use. This is lower than the amount allocated to industry. Domestic use is the least at just under 20%. In some models, industry uses more than agriculture at about 45%
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Ways water is used in LICs/MICs
Agriculture accounts for over 80% of total water use with industry using more of the remainder than domestic allocation. As LICs industrialised and urban industrial complexes expand the demand for water grows rapidly in the industrial and domestic sectors causing intensified competition with agriculture
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Physical vs economic water scarcity
Physical is when physical access is limited and demand outstrips supply especially in arid and semi arid regions where temperatures and evaporation rates are high while precipitation is low. Economic exists when a country does not have the money to utilise an adequate supply which can be due to political and ethnic conflict leading to a lack of investment. This is expected to worsen as the population continues to increase, per person demand is rising due to increasing affluence, there is increasing demand for water heavy biofuels, climate change is increasing aridity and water sources are threatened by pollution
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Spatial variations of water scarcity
There is little or no water scarcity in most of North/South America, much of Europe, Russia and some areas of Oceania. There is physical water scarcity in SW USA, an area of Southern Africa, the Northern Africa coast and much of the Middle East and central Asia. Economic water scarcity is heavily concentrated in most of Africa, especially sub-saharan as well as some Southern central America countries in additional to a few areas in Southern Asia. Areas approaching physical water scarcity include a region of Peru, Southern USA into Mexico, the South coast of Africa and much of the Middle East
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Rural degredation
Has primarily been due to population growth and increasing pressures on the land but urban activities can also have consequences
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Soil degredation
A change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services. Involves the physical loss and loss of topsoil quality associated with nutrient decline and contamination. It has caused a 15% loss of agricultural supply
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Soil degradation in different places
In temperate areas it is caused by market forces and the attitudes of farmers and governments. In the tropics it results from high population pressure, land shortages and lack of awareness. The greater climate extremes and poorer soil structures give greater degradation potential. The main cause is the removal of vegetation cover leaving the surface exposed to wind and water erosion. Deforestation (37%), overgrazing (35%), agricultural mismanagement (27%) and industry and urbanisation (1%)
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Deforestation
Occurs due to the clearing of land for agricultural use and timber activities. These happen quickly. Rain is no longer intercepted by vegetation with rainsplash loosening the topsoil leaving it vulnerable to removal by overland flow
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Overgrazing
The grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying capacity. Population pressure and poor agricultural practices have caused this
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Process of overgrazing
Trampling by animals damages plant leaves. Some leaves die reducing the ability of plants to photosynthesise. There are less leaves to intercept rainfall and the ground is exposed. Sensitive plant species disappear. Soil begins to erode since the soil structure is damaged and compacted. Loose surface soil particles are carried away by wind or water. Loss of structure means less water can infiltrate so growth rates are reduced
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Causes of soil degradation
Erosion by wind and water
Physical degradation
Chemical degradation (through pollution and changes in pH)
Biological degradation (loss of organic matter and biodiversity)
Climate and land use change
Agricultural mismanagement (pursuit of short term gain and lack of knowledge)
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Environmental and socio economic consequences of soil degradation
Increasing world population and changing diets with affluence puts pressure on land. A decline in long term soil productivity is limited LIC food production. Degraded soils can't store carbon so it is released to the atmosphere
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Causes of agricultural mismanagement
Policy failure (pricing, subsidies and tax policies can encourage the excessive use of inputs and overexploitation of land)
Rural inequalities (rural people know how to conserve the environment but have to overexploit resources for survival, commercial exploitation degrades for higher profit)
Resource imbalances (future growth will be in LICs which are the least equipped to meet needs or invest in the future)
Unsustainable technology (new technology has increased production but have caused insect resistance to pesticides, land degradation, nutrient depletion, poor irrigation and a loss of biodiversity)
Trade relations (LICs export values have fallen so the expansion of damaging crop and timber production has been used to boost incomes)
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Impact of agro-industrialisation
Deforestation
Land degradation and desertification
Salinisation and contamination of water supplies
Air pollution
Increasing concerns about the health of long term farm workers
Landscape change
Declines in biodiversity
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The environmental impact of capital intensive farming
1/3 of farmland is affected by salinisation or erosion. There are 1.5 bn cattle which need 1/3 of total agricultural land. 1.3 bn are employed in livestock. The balance between livestock and land is currently sustainable but as demand for meat increases, land pressures will rise. Manure can lead to pollution by heavy metals. There is a strong relationship between meat consumption and incomes
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Expansion of large scale farming
Has expanded into fragile environments like rainforests. 7.3m hectares of rainforest are lost each year. Important breeds of livestock are becoming extinct due to overuse by commercial companies. Genetic resources need to be the basis of food security. Agro industrialisation is characterised by large areas of monoculture that leave crops more vulnerable to diseases due to the depletion of natural pest control systems. Causes pesticide reliance
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Poverty and rural degradation
Poor households can be compelled to degrade environments but most is caused by large commercial operations and governments. There are an increasing number of sustainable schemes being practiced in rural areas. Poor households may be pushed onto more marginal lands by logging and mining operations. Government policy can also have a significant negative effect on the poor
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Urban/rural impact
Urban areas can affect the environmental degradation of rural surroundings. Untreated wastewater is a major river pollutant which contaminates estuaries and coastal fishing areas and pollutes drinking water of rural communities. Urban use of groundwater can cause aquifer depletion to the detriment of small farmers who rely on shallow wells. In arid areas cities can cause saltwater intrusion under coastal areas due to groundwater pumping
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Urban degradation (environmental issues)
Air pollution from traffic congestion and industrial emissions
Water pollution from untreated sewage and waste dumping into rivers or lakes
Soil contamination due to toxic waste and chemicals
Loss of green spaces and biodiversity
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Urban degradation (health problems)
Increased respiratory diseases due to air pollution
Waterborne diseases like cholera and dysentery from contaminated water
Mental health issues due to overcrowding and poor living conditions
Spread of vector-borne diseases such as dengue and malaria due to poor sanitation
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Urban degradation (social challenges)
Increased crime rates due to unemployment and poor social conditions
Overcrowding leading to a lack of privacy and strained social infrastructure
Loss of cultural and historic identity due to neglected heritage buildings
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Urban degradation (economic consequences)
Decline in property values in degraded areas
Reduced economic productivity due to poor infrastructure and unreliable utilities
Higher public expenditure on healthcare and infrastructure repair
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Urban degradation (infrastructure failures)
Frequent power outages due to overloaded or poorly maintained systems
Inefficient waste management causing garbage accumulation
Deteriorating roads and public transportation systems
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Urban degradation (quality of life issues)
Noise pollution from traffic and industrial activity
Lack of access to clean water and adequate sanitation
Increased commute times due to traffic congestion
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Urban degradation (urban sprawl and land use conflicts)
Loss of agricultural land to unplanned urban expansion
Poor zoning leading to incompatible land uses
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Urban degradation (community displacement)
Gentrification pushing low income families out of urban areas
Informal settlements or slums with inadequate infrastructure
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Urban degradation (loss of public services)
Underfunded schools, hospitals and public facilities
Insufficient law enforcement and emergency services
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Urban degradation (climate vulnerability)
Increased risk of flooding due to poor drainage and loss of vegetation
Urban heat islands exacerbating heatwaves
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Solutions to urban degradation
Better city planning
Managing waste properly
Helping communities thrive
Fixing and upgrading services
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Rural impacts on urban living
More people moving to cities
Less food for cities
Pollution spreads to cities
Health and money problems
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Rapid population growth constraint on improving degraded environments
Resources are stretched to their limits leading to soil degradation and desertification. Techniques like crop rotation or reforestation could restore the soil but implementing them across vast areas is costly and requires education and cooperation. High birth rates create immediate demand for food and housing leaving little room for long term environmental strategies
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Rural-urban migration constraint on improving degraded environments
People moving from rural areas to cities leave behind abandoned farmland and stressed ecosystems. Urban migration creates challenges as cities expand into natural habitats. Urban governments prioritize housing and infrastructure over conservation. For migrants, survival outweighs environmental concerns
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Climate change constraint on improving degraded environments
Worsens environmental degradation by increasing droughts, flooding and extreme weather. Climate resilient agriculture could mitigate these issues but costs are high for LICs. International funding and cooperation are slow and countries may prioritise short term economic growth over long term climate resilience
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Environmental hazards constraint on improving degraded environments
Natural disasters can degrade environments rapidly. Countries recovering from disasters often lack resources to focus on long term environmental recovery while addressing immediate human needs
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Lack of knowledge constraint on improving degraded environments
Communities may be unaware of how their actions harm the environment or lack of knowledge of sustainable alternatives. Education campaigns could help but reaching remote farmers and convincing them to change practices is hard. Education programs take time and funding and traditional farming methods are deeply ingrained
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Poor management at central and local levels constraint on improving degraded environments
Weak governance can delay or mismanage environmental projects. Local authorities often lack the resources or authority to act effectively. Bureaucracy and political disagreements slow decision making while underfunded local governments struggle to enforce environmental laws
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Lack of financing and investment constraint on improving degraded environments
Improving degraded environments requires significant investment which many countries cannot afford. International loans and grants are available but can come with deterring conditions. Poor countries prioritise urgent human needs over environmental restoration
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Civil war constraint on improving degraded environments
Conflict exacerbates environmental degradation by displacing populations and destroying infrastructure. After conflict, rebuilding environmental systems is not a priority. Post conflict nations focus on rebuilding security and governance rather than environmental recovery
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Corruption and crime constraint on improving degraded environments
Corruption and illegal activities undermine efforts to restore degraded environments. Officials may accept bribes to overlook these activities making enforcement impossible. Corruption creates distrust between citizens and authorities while powerful interests in illegal industries resist change=
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Needs, measures and outcomes framework
Needs identify the specific issues an environment faces. It ranges from pollution and deforestation to erosion and biodiversity loss. This requires data collection, community consultation and scientific analysis. Measures develop actions to address the needs. They could include creating conservation areas, reforestation, pollution control or education. They should be feasible, culturally aware and environmentally sound. Outcomes monitor and evaluate the measures results. Positive outcomes are reduced degradation, biodiversity and community resilience. Evaluating outcomes ensures the long term success of strategies
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Habitat restoration
Many ecosystems are degraded due to urbanisation, agriculture and industrial activities. Local communities can plant native vegetation, restore wetlands and reduce invasive species. Restored habitats support biodiversity, improve carbon sequestration and provide ecosystem sources like clean water and air
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Sustainable agriculture and forestry
Unsustainable practices like overgrazing, mono-cropping and deforestation threaten soil fertility, water quality and biodiversity. Farmers can adopt sustainable practices like crop rotation, agroforestry and organic farming. Authorities may enforce regulations to prevent illegal logging and promote reforestation. These enhance soil health, reduce greenhouse gas emissions and provide sustainable livelihoods for communities
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Pollution control
Pollution from industries, agriculture and urban waste threatens water bodies, air quality and soil health. Solutions include wastewater treatment plants, eco friendly industrial practices and community clean up campaigns. Banning single use plastics is also effective. Cleaner environments improve public health, support aquatic life and reduce the risk of contamination spreading to larger ecosystems
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Creating protected areas
Many species and ecosystems are threatened by habitat destruction and human exploitation. Governments and NAOs can establish national parks, marine reserves and protected areas. Protected areas safeguard biodiversity, allow ecosystems to recover and provide eco tourism opportunities for local economies
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Community education and participation
A lack of awareness and involvement hinders effective environmental protection. Communities may not understand how their activities contribute to environmental degradation. Educational programs, workshops and awareness campaigns can empower people to take responsibility for their environment. Educated communities are more likely to adopt sustainable practices, participate in conservation and influence policies
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Climate change mitigation and adaptation
Many environments are at risk due to climate change such as rising sea levels, increased temperatures and extreme weather. Communities can adopt renewable energy, build resilient infrastructure and develop early warning systems for extreme weather. These reduce vulnerability to climate risks and contribute to global efforts to limit temperature rise
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The role of technology and innovation
Remote sensing and GIS allow for the monitoring of deforestation, land use changes and pollution levels. Renewables energies reduce reliance on fossil fuels, lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Biodegradable materials help reduce plastic pollution
