Unit 9 Flashcards

Question

Western Europe: The Move Toward Unity

Answer 1

-national identity v European unity --> national identity too powerful for full unity, but economic unit became focus post-WWII -European Coal & Steel Community (ECSC) (1951): France, West Germany, Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg) --> goal: create common market for coal & steel products by eliminating tariffs & trade barriers -European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) (1957): further research on peaceful use of nuclear energy -European Economic Community (EEC) (1957): eliminated customs barriers & created free-trade area protected to other parts of the world w/external tariff --> all nations benefited economically & standardized aspects of economy

Answer 2

-Postwar prosperity: *Right after WW|| ended Western Europe wasn't doing good economically --> Marshall Plan = drastic increase in prosperity in 1950s/60s + many euro govs made strong policy decisions that put economic recovery on forefront (avoid repeat of Great Depression) *Embraced liberal democratic principles & Keynesian Economics = govs jobs to stimulate economy & does so by increasing gov spending -Creation of the Welfare State *Welfare states had roots in Bismarck Germany in 2nd half of 19th cen --> implemented insurance for ppl who got injured @ jobs & for old age pensions for those too old to work *followed tradition of extending state power over lives of citizens (total war) *In GB they established lowcost/no cost uni's, subsidized healthcare benefits & unemployment insurance etc (implemented by Liberal Labor party whose goal was to create Cradle to Grave social welfare state, money for this came from higher taxes & for most part these programs were popular & didn't mind higher taxes just as long as the economy was good) *goal: make possible for people to live better lives --> eliminate poverty & homelessness, provide medical services, retirement, education in order to free people to achieve happiness *retirement & insurance --> provide for unemployment & retirement --> provide free medical w/insurance or discounted medical care (patient pays 10-25%) *family allowances: money to help provide minimum level of material care for children (helped encourage families to have children) *free/reduced cost universities: viewed education as opportunity for class mobility state spending increased dramatically on social services: ~17% in 1967 to 40-50% in 1980 --> critics argued that it created generations dependent on state -Gender Issues in Welfare State *should women be categorized as mothers or individuals? --> British welfare system was formed on basis that women would be wives & mothers & not employed ~women received subsidies for children, but married women who worked had few to no benefits

Answer 3

-When two Economic recessions hit in 1973-1974 & 1979-1983, tax revenue decreased in GB & across western Europe & high level of gov spending was difficult to maintain --> problem so pronounced that economists had to invent new term, Stagflation (combo of terms stagnant & inflation, economies no longer growing + prices were rising like crazy) however many western govs still spent hefty amounts on new social welfare programs bc they were so popular its just that they had to continue that spending by running up budget deficits instead of paying for them w/tax income --> prior to this unemployment had been very low & wages very high → over production & over investment --> economic downturn led to rapidly increasing unemployment (from 2-4% to 12%), by 1980s begin recovering -West Germany *Ostpolitik: opening toward east–began to restore relationship w/East Germany -Great Britain: Thatcher & Thatcherism Britain struggling w/economic issues & turmoil in Northern Ireland --> increased & ongoing violence between Catholics & Protestants (IRA begins terrorist attacks) ~Britain brings Northern Ireland under direct rule *Margaret Thatcher became first woman to serve as prime minister in British history (Iron Lady) --> leads Conservative party govt; pledged to lower taxes, reduce govt bureaucracy, limit social welfare, restrict union power, & end inflation --> successful in limiting power of unions, but unable to eliminate social welfare --> Thatcherism: term for her economic policy –modernized economy, but old industrial areas suffered --> foreign policy: hardline approach to communism, rebuild military & replace old technology ~Falkland Islands: 1982 Argentina attempted to take control of Falkland Islands (british colony), British able to keep Falklands, but at economic & military cost (255 soldiers died) ~created support for Thatcher–nostalgia of British empire

Answer 4

- Uncertainties in France *economic issues continued to plague France–led to socialist party influence throughout 1980s -Confusion in Italy *practiced coalition governments (by 1991 on 50th since war) *economic and social turmoil plagued country –anarchists led terror attacks, Mafia continued to corrupt government and society -The European Community *European Economic Community (ECC, 1957): expanded to include Great Britain, Ireland, Denmark in 1973; rebranded European Community *Greece joins in 1981 *Spain and Portugal join in 1986 *economic integration leads to social & political cooperation as well

Answer 5

-Germany Restored *Revolutions of 1989 created unified Germany --> restoring eastern Germany much larger task than west Germany thought -had to increase taxes & there were high levels of unemployment --> in 2005 Angela Merkel (leader of Christian Democrats) became first female chancellor of Germany ~pushed for health care reform, new energy policies, & played leading role in European Union -Post-Thatcher Britain *Thatcher’s popularity reached all time low after attempted tax reforms & riots *Labour Party led by Tony Blair won in 1997 elections & ruled until ~2010 when Conservatives formed coalition government w/Liberal Democrats -France: Right and Left *resentment against foreign born residents grew in 1990s & became part of political rhetoric --> tensions between Muslim community & French population rose (young Muslims led riot in Paris) -Corruption in Italy *government plagued by corruption (in 1993 hundreds of politicians were under investigation for bribery) *Several changes in leadership & economic turmoil continue to plague Italy

Answer 6

-European Community added Austria, Finland, & Sweden in 1995 (15 countries) *continued as mostly economic entity, but opened borders in 1985 *Single Europe Act (1986): united internal market, eliminating all barriers to exchange of goods, people, services, and capital. -Steps to European Integration: |. Organization for European Economic Cooperation = body that organized disbursement & spending of Marshall Plan funds ||. European Coal & Steel Community (formed 1951): Agreement between 6 states (France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, & Luxembourg) to integrate their steel & coal operations --> Economic Union quickly profitable 4 all of them involved & idea was that if member nations were tied together economically it would therefore be unthinkable to go to war w/one another --> as these independent nations worked together to become kind of singular economic block they began reaping fab profits bc of their coop & bc this worked so well 6 member nations signed treaty --> (next point) |||. Common Market (was result) 1957 to expand relationship to include goods beyond Coal & Steel: (also successful), over century more Euro nations joined this coop & integration of various State economies into a single Euro economy was slowly occurring, this agreement meant that trade restrictions between Euro states were almost nill & in light of this coop the economic agreement later expanded into allowing citizens of all of those states to travel frequently between them w/o need of passport |V. 1993 Maastricht Treaty --> officially created European Union (originally signed by 12 countries but wasn't just an economic integration of Europe but also had political ramifications as well *Once EU was a reality, they established 7 bodies that would make policy for EU members including a parliament, executive body, & group of ministers who consider issues like defense & foreign policy -Treaty of the European Union (Maastricht Treaty) (1992): attempt to create true economic & monetary union of all EC members *Jan 1, 1994 EC renamed European Union *1999: 12 nations adopt the Euro as a new common currency *June 1 1999: European Central Bank created *January 2013: euro officially replaced 17 national currencies *Crisis: financial crisis of 2010 revealed high public debt of Greece & southern Eurozone countries led to uncertainty about economic stability --> Goals ~common agricultural practices & subsidies to make European farmers competitive on world market ~end of national passports made travel easier ~created military force of 60,000, but most foreign policy still state controlled ~Lisbon Treaty created position of President & expanded power & representation in EU’s parliament to reflect size of states --> Problems ~national identity v European identity (aka national sovereignty vs responsibility to Union, more recent & visible manifestation of this = GB exiting EU in 2016 (officially left EU in 2020) known as Brexit, major driving factor was EU's very favorable policies towards immigration) ~economic issues have exposed weaknesses ~disputes over open border, especially amidst migration crisis --> Toward a United Europe ~early 2000s EU made goal of including eastern & southern European states -~established qualifications to join to avoid weakening EU --~commitment to market capitalism & democracy (respect for minorities and human rights)

Answer 7

|. With postwar economic boom came a high demand for labor: Remember that bc of the Marshall Plan funds Western European Economies were humming right along & w/terrific growth came new jobs that needed to be filled ||. The economy of Western Europe was slowly shifting away from being primarily dependent on male-dominated industries like coal mining or shipbuilding & more toward a knowledge economy in which people worked primarily w/their brains: & Bc of that women had an easier time entering those more white-collar professions |||. Many younger women started going to college in droves after the war & that prepared them well for work in knowledge economy *Although women had more opportunities, many still faced inequality in the workplace, many women could only find part-time work & if they did find work it was almost inevitable that they would be paid less than men doing the same work

Answer 8

-Many of these gains in the west were due to efforts of feminists & what came known as second wave feminists (first wave of feminism occurred in 2nd half of 19th cen & early part of 20th cen & its main goal was to get govs to recognize women's suffrage however women's right to vote wouldn't come to full fruition until 2nd wave) --> In the West this was a result of feminist activism, many govs had already recognized woman's right to vote bc of their profound contribution in war effort of WW|, but after WW|| many women went back to their roles as wives & mothers seemingly content w/having gained such a vital right but second wave feminists in 60s & 70s understood that there was much work left to do to achieve equality in a male dominated society -So whereas the main push during the first wave was to secure right to vote, second wave focused more on Societal issues & inequalities women faces including education, marriage laws, & professional careers *In France it was the work of Simone de Bouvoir who laid foundation for feminist ideals in her boom "The Second Sex" & in it she argued that the societal standards that governed women's behavior ought to be abolished & that women should have every opporutnity that men have & her work became the philosophical foundation for second wave feminism --> However in the east, more specifically, the Soviet Bloc & Soviet Union, women gained their rights not by means of feminist agitation but more directly through government policy (As far back as Russian Revolution, women had been recognized as equal to men & in many ways had a greater equality of opportunity than anywhere in west, however many of the same troubled plagued women in the Soviet countries that befell them in the West)

Answer 9

-Divorce Laws began to shift giving women some agency in divorce process which prior to this was almost entirely in hands of the husband -Women also gained more control on the amount of children they had or whether they had children at all: *Most significant change was introduction of the Birth Control Pill (this new technology was largely the effort of American feminist Margaret Sanger who poured metric buttloads of cash into development of pill) --> Main push back against what women considered a profound new freedom over their bodies came from Roman Catholic Church: By their reckoning it was god who opened & closed the womb & to introduce a pill that took such a power away was to play God oneself *Invitro Fertilization: means by which an egg could be fertilized outside the womb & then implanted into a woman's uterus, gave couples who could not get pregnant a new option for children but even more it meant women could get pregnant apart from being handcuffed to a man

Answer 10

-Margaret Thatcher: GB's first female prime minister in 1979 --> fierce conservative who made it her goal to reverse the liberal Labour Party's policies that had been turning GB into a Welfare state for decades *She slashed government programs & lowered taxes for the wealthy & privatized many state-run agencies -Then in 1990 Mary Robinson rose to power as the first female president of Ireland & she used her power as president to modernize Ireland which is to say she worked for the legalization of many cultural taboos like divorce & contraception & homosexuality -First Female Prime minister of France rose to power in 1991, Socialist named Edith Cresson: Her role not quite as celebrated as two previous women mentioned since her tenure was plagued with accusations of corruption

Answer 11

-Decolonization: Started after WW|thanks to American President Woodrow Wilson, one of his big pushes during peace process (Versailles) was encouragement of self determination for all states involved & all states around the world --> means that any given people should have the right to determine their own political structure, their own gov w/o interference of European imperial power --> Despite push for this European powers were reluctant to make this change even tho colonial soldiers fought in WW|, however after WW|| (colonial soldiers fought in that too) major imperial powers no longer had the wealth or military power to quell rising demands for independence around the world & thus began decolonization

Answer 12

-Remember that European powers had carved up Africa during second wave of imperialism, aka "Scramble for Africa" in 19th cen but after WW|| indigenous nationalist movements sprang up demanding independence: *In Algeria for example, which had been a French colony things got tense as France had already recognized independence of Morocco & Tunisia but also had Algeria under their thumb bc they didn't wanna grant them independence as the problems in Algeria is that almost a million French citizens had immigrated there & settled, so in response to this reluctance, in the 1950s a nationalist Muslim group called "National Liberation Front" began rebelling against their colonizers & so to protect French citizens living in Algeria along w/100s of 1000s of other white Europeans France sent troops to crush the rebellion which instigated bloody 8 year civil war --> Came to an end w/return of Charles Gaulle who became prez of France in 1958, he recognized Algeria's right to self-determination & officially recognized their independence *Another example = Egypt which had been a British Colony, technically Egypt became independent in 1922 after WW| but British engineered independence so they were basically still in charge --> Nationalist Political Party was formed in Egypt called "Wafd" which began campaigning for full Egyptian independence, problem was that the Wafd weren't big fans of Egyptian monarch either so in 1952 the Egyptian Army led a coup to overthrow the monarch & officially throw off British intrusion in their state *India: Mohandas Gandhi led Indian National Congress in movement for Indian independence from GB & Gandhi's chosen means of leadership to this end was non-violent civil disobedience & British were essentially exhausted & broke from fighting WW||& in light of all this resistance from Indians they realized they simply didn't have the resources nor power to maintain colonial rule in India --> 1947 India through negotiation w/GB became an independent nation, & since all of this is going on in midst of Cold War US & Soviet Union tired to persuade newly independent countries to join one side out of the other BUT India resisted both powers & remained independent of the struggle & thus paved the way for what became known as the Non Aligned Movement which several other newly independent nations would take *But for other states remaining unaligned was more difficult: --> For example in Indonesia which had gained its independence from Dutch in 1949 the Soviets made significant inroads, Prez of Indonesia Sukarno was a socialist & gladly accepted support for his policies from Soviet Union & communist China however an Indonesian Nationalist movement formed during his tenure mostly comprised of the military & conservative Muslims & they overthrew Sukarno in 1965 & then established a new gov & aligned themselves w/the West *World witnessed similar struggle as Vietnam sought its independence from France: In 1950s Vietnamese nationalist leader named Ho Chi Minh organized a resistance group called Viet Minh whos goal was to overthrow the French & the Viet Minh won a decisive battle against the French in 1954 & so the French divided Vietnam into 2 in order to prepare them for elections & independence in 1956, north dominated by communists, South more loyal to Western power, US & Soviet Union fight war here, but after all said & done Vietnam gain independence 1975

Answer 13

|. Birth Control pill: Rlly was a revolution for women, & many women used it as a means to control their reproductive organs ||. Abortion: Ancient practice, not new, but what was new was the scientific precision w/which the procedure could be done, w/antiseptic tools & antibiotics that could guard against infection, abortion became a far safer procedure for those women who chose to elect it |||. Fertility Treatments: For much of euro history, if a woman was unable for whatever reason to have a child it was considered a judgement from God b/c it was God who opened/closed the womb but in the 20th cen scientists began to understand the causes of infertility & develop medical procedures to address it, probably the most revolutionary was a procedure called invitro fertilization |V. Genetic Engineering: Also had a long history like when farmers decided to breed their best cows so that good cows would be born yk yk, but in 20th cen scientists discovered that they could actually alter the genetic code of DNA of organisms, now in some cases scientists being able to cure certain genetic diseases but it was not w/o controversy

Answer 14

-New medical treatments caused significant questions about society -In post war era many European countries became Welfare States aka medical care to their populations from Cradle to grave so problem w/ppl living longer lives = end up costing more money to care for medically & remember that states paid for the medical care through taxes & so as ppl began living longer more taxes were required to continue offering health care & as we know nobody wants to pay more taxes lol --> example of social question that arose bc of new medical treatments -When it came to birth control & abortion main objector here was Roman Catholic Church: church continued to hold belief that God opened & closed the womb & thus forcibly closing the womb w/the pill was playing god & in terms of abortion Catholics believed that life began @ moment of conception + accoriding to Bible human beings are made in image of God & more to the point by the agency of God therefore by their reckoning to abort a child was tantamount to murder & Catholic church also strongly protested invitro fertilization for similar reasons -When it came to genetic engineering a big objection had to do w/Eugenics which is the process for weeding out the undesirables in society & encouraging the multiplication of the desirables, Hitler's final solution was considered an experiment in Eugenics b/c he wanted to eliminate whole races of ppl & leave behind only inheritors of Aryan genealogy, but now w/genetic engineering scientists could alter human characteristics at the level of the fertilized egg & that was scary to a lot of ppl

Answer 15

-Western Europe's recovery after WW|| was dubbed an "economic miracle" but w/economy booming tons of new jobs were opening w/not enough Europeans to fill them (even though Women were filling some of these, that still was not enough to fulfill demand!) -Beginning 1950s/60s, bc of said labor shortage, European countries began relying on what they called "guest workers", aka immigrants, to help fill all jobs --> W/worldwide movement of decolonization that was occurring during this period, many people from former colonies began moving to their former imperial parent countries for work (Indians came to GB, Africans came to France etc) --> Europeans migrated to other European states too, for example Southern Europeans of various drives came to find work in Germany --> By 1980s immigrants constituted about 5% of European population, & weren't just workers for industrialization & jobs but also brought along culture w/them, even brought religion: Most prolific growth in religion during this period came from Muslim immigrants practicing Islam in their new homes & that huge influx of Muslims led to debates about the proper role of religion in the public sphere -There was an increase in Immigrants from Middle East, esp Syria, Iraq, & Afghanistan entering by the Mediterranean Sea & thru Europe. -Europe accepted at least 1.2 million refugees, Germany more than 800,000 —> Led for a European Union-wide quota system, although many countries rejected the proposal. —> Eastern European countries have been vocal against these obligatory quotas -The New Urban Environment: -Postwar era, most European countries were busy rebuilding their cities, while US saw a mass exodus in suburbia. —> Industrialized cities showed huge decline in pop. while older cities (i.e. NYC, London) saw an increase in pop. —> 21st process of deindustrialization b/c of globalization of trade changed urban landscape of Europe & the US. —> New industries relied on educated workforce & proximity to other knowledge-based sector people. -By 2010, majority of Europeans & Americans lived in cities

Answer 16

-Since Europe has always been historically Christian, the steady growth of Islam as a minority religion became unwelcome in certain places, for example in some countries Muslims were given free access to run for office but others had constructed significant barriers --> Additionally some Europeans believed that while the practice of Islam clashes w/European laws then the religious practices ought to bend to the laws, especially true when it comes to traditional head coverings for girls in school --> When the # of available jobs (during recession) was declining, some groups turned to anti-immigrant rhetoric & policies as the explanation for their woes: For example in France the National Front attempted to cut off all immigration & restrict current immigrants from assimilation to French society, however National Front candidates never really made it into power but they did get a sizable amount of votes & that kind of success led to other immigrant parties to adopt their anti-immigrant proposal; A similar party in Austria known as the Freedom Party was more successful in attempting to get candidates elected but still lost

Answer 17

-Globalization is a word that describes the increasing economic, political, & social interconnectedness of the world: This phenomenon began during this period in terms of European history some iteration of globalization had been encouraged since the beginning of this course w/first wave of imperialism but in 20th & 21st cen globalization became more widespread in the process by which it occurred was happening at a much greater speed -Causes of Globalization |. Multinational Corporations: (By def = entity which is incorporated in one country but manufacturers & sells goods in other countries) & the architecture of these corporations is as follows, Multinational corporations employ knowledge workers in their own countries, then manufacture goods for sale in other countries & then sell those goods on a global market, good example of a multinational corporation is Nestle, as headquartered in Switzerland, purchases & manufactures chocolate w/low wage work in West Africa & in some cases child & enslaved labor & sells glorious treats on world market ||. International governing bodies: Here you can think abt European Union or United Nations as they enacted policies that are made for a global community over policies that would benefit a single state |||. Rapid Rise of Communication & Transportation technologies

Answer 18

-Telephone increasingly connected ppl in distant locations & this kind of tech also made migration & immigration more palatable since those who moved away could easily stay in contact w/their families back home -Radio: Rose to prominence in 1930s -Television in 1950s: especially democratized entertainment, prior to this if ppl wanted to see moving pictures they went to the theaters & in general was an elite activity since it was expensive however w/decreasing cost of television throughout 50s & 60s more & more of the average ppl could watch television programming in their homes --> esp in the beginning much of the programming came from US, & that upset Europe as much of entertainment was from US & this was done in 1930s mainly through the export of American movies & then as television adopted in more & more homes through 50s & 60s this was done thru television programs, American media producers sold their shows to European broadcasters for a fraction of what it would cost them to produce the programs on their own & problem is that entertainment is not neutral, every movie or tv show is written according to values that culture holds & so Europeans were digesting American entertainment by the metric buttload they were also metabolizing American values that in some cases were contradictory to their own so this tension between enthusiasm for new tech & criticism against this new kind of American imperialism -Internet late 90s & early 2000s: connected the world in a way it never had been before, ppl could log onto the worldwide web through devices called computer & entire world was open, this meant ideas from everywhere could influence ppl & w/rise of online retailers like amazon commerce increased rapidly -Transportation: *In first half of 20th cen ppl mainly got around in trains but starting in 1930s Europe began to adopt the automobile more & more, & by the end of the cen entire cities & suburbs & rural areas were completely remade into the image of the car aka roads primary way of getting anywhere you needed to go & w/this ease of transportation migration took place more easily too

Answer 19

-Green Parties made it their aim to challenge effects of increasing consumerism & all its corresponding environmental degradation & toward the end of the 20th cen they began to challenge globalization *By the 1970s it became apparent in Western & Eastern Europe that the globalizing effect of commerce was taking its toll environmentally, for example the Ryan River was polluted & STANK, also oil spills spoiled ecosystems & destroyed the natural beauty of GB & France etc & so Green parties arose whos goal was to get politicians elected who would enact policies to fix these problems, first green party candidates didn't gain much traction but eventually did, first real success came from the German Green party who ran on a platform of opposing nuclear energy & became esp prominent after Chernobyl disaster In Soviet Union which put forth a bunch of radioactive material into the environment & by the end of the 20th cen every European state had its own version of a green party & they are still rallying against globalization policies that degrade the environment

Answer 20

-Both World Wars led to decreased confidence that science could solve all our problems & so philosophy of the age began to reflect this disillusionment of the world & engendered a strong reaction against Enlightenment rationalists *Existentialism: philosophy that assured world was absurd & thus meaning had to be found in spite of that absurdity: Friedrich Nietzsche was poster boy for this as by his reckoning GOD IS DEAD & WE EUROPEANS HAVE KILLED HIM & thus now that God was dead, life was inherently meaningless *1950s Postmodernism: Pointed out all truth was relative, postmodern philosophers would sat that no one culture or thinker has the corner on absolute truth bc all truth claims are culturally conditioned

Answer 21

-It is true that Europe became more secular over 20th & 21st cen. but it is also true that organized religion continued to play a significant role in European social & cultural life in spite of the many challenges it faced *For example in the 20th cen the church had to contend w/totalitarian govs & their responses were mixed, in Germany Dietrich Bonhoeffer founded the confessing Church which was exceedingly vocal in its criticism of Nazi policies esp their anti-jewish policies but for his suspected participation in an assassination attempt against Hitler, Bonhoeffer was executed in the waning days of the war *When Mussolini rose to power in Italy he understood that he needed the support of the Catholic Church in Rome so he recognized the independence of Vatican City & proclaimed Catholicism as the official religion of Italy & in response the pope encouraged citizens to support the Fascist gov *In Poland church had to contend w/Soviet communist repression, in 1980 a group known as solidarity was founded which was essentially a Polish trade union that existed outside the Warsaw Pact, the Soviets tried their hardest to crush this opposition but could not & in 1978 a Catholic Cardinal from Poland was elected Pope of the Catholic Church taking the name John Paul || & being sympathetic w/goals of Solidarity the pope financially supported their efforts to undermine the Soviet communist regime in Poland -Second Vatican Council/Vatican ||: Purpose of this council was essentially to update the Church to respond to the modern world & one of the most significant changes was the allowance of priests to say the mass in Vernacular languages rather than in Latin, additionally the church made resolutions to live on friendlier terms w/other sects of Christianity namely Protestants & Eastern Orthodox Christians & ultimately these sweeping reforms led to revival of Catholicism in various parts of Europe

Answer 22

-Cubism around the turn of the 20th cen: In this movement the subjects of the paintings became almost nonsensical it was a style that depicted 3-D objects in 2-D & Pablo Picasso probably most famous of these artists -Italian & Russian Artistic Movement "Futurism": Artists emphasized future of Italy & Russia in order to to free them from their recently checkered past -Dadaism: Response to the felt purposelessness of life after two world wars had devastated the European continent, if life was devoid of purpose so too should art, for ex Marcel Duchamp's famous Dada piece called Fountain -Surrealism: As Sigmund Freud had exposed the chaotic & unrefined interior world of human beings, art ought to reflect those realities, most famous of Surrealists was Salvador Dali aka Persistence of Memory, dripping clocks guy -Architecture changed too: Bauhaus School of Architecture emerged in Germany during interwar years, their goal was to design strictures based on their function & to focus none on useless conventions of form -Literature: Writers ave begun to challenge forms that have been handed down to them, Irish Novelist James Joyce made popular new form of composition called Stream of Consciousness & the idea here was to reproduce on the page a characters actual thoughts which in case of humans occur in rapid succession w/o punctuation or conventions of composition, thoughts of characters if Joyce's Ulysses are presented in this fashion jumping from one idea to the next w/o an connection, or take writer Franz Kafka who challenged old conventions by combining elegant writing w/elements of fantastical imagination, most known work was Metamorphosis in which the protagonist wakes up from his sleep only to realize that he's been mysteriously transformed into a giant cockroach lol?

Answer 23

-In terms of consumerism the disposable income of average European significantly increased during this time *Thanks to WW|| factories that have perfected workflow w/production of munitions began cranking out consumer products like mad & since middle class folks were enjoying fruit of growing economy they were able to spend money on things to make their lives more comfortable -Simultaneously in the post-war years there was a massive baby boom, several European govs encouraged it by investing in Neonatalist policies which is to say policies that encouraged ppl to have babies, policies included paid maternity leave, & tax credits for each child born, now this increase occurred more sharply in Western countries than it did in others like the Soviet union & that had many different causes most of which came back to massive deaths racked up as a result of the war

Answer 24

-During this period several groups fought for an expansion in civil rights -Prior to these movements homosexuality was outlawed in almost all European states & while many groups fought to overturn the most famous is Homosexual Front For Revolutionary Action which occurred in France: In 1971 they began their movement by interrupting a radio broadcast in which a Catholic priest was arguing against the acceptance of homosexuality, they broke in pounded his head on the desk & then shouted into the microphones that there was nothing wrong w/them & that the policies against gays & lesbians ought to be overturned, radio station quickly cut microphones & called Police --> This & other movements across Europe like it fought for equality for LGBTQ ppl in 20th & 21st cen, in some places like France they won many victories but in other places esp Eastern Europe they faced stiff opposition

Answer 25

-Obv not everyone was happy with expansion of consumerism in 20th cen mainly composed of those who came of age during the 60s, the Counter-Culture movement railed against the cultural conformity that consumerism created, additionally they protested not only the conformity caused by consumerism but the growing inequality between the rich & poor that in engendered & high water mark of the counterculture movement was the revolts of 1968 --> All across Europe & all across the world students led protests against inequality, the war in Vietnam, the abuses of capitalism & oppressive govs, one of the most notable example occurred in France in May of 1968, in that case a group of students influenced by New Left ideologies protested conservative policies in their University & led to violent clashes w/Police in which property was destroyed & many students were injured, a couple days later a general strike of 10 million workers joined the protest & the French gov looked as if it could fall to those protesters, ultimately the gov made some reforms as did the University & the movement fizzled out