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Unit Objective 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the process of fermentation

A

Releases energy from sugars or other organic molecules; Does not require oxygen; Does not use Kreb’s Cycle/ETC; Uses organic molecules as the final electron acceptor.

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2
Q

When and how much ATP is produced in fermentation

A

2 ATP are produced during the first stage (glycolysis)

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3
Q

Tell why the fermentation stage is performed? (2 functions)

A

1) Supplies NAD+ and NADP so that glycolysis can continue

2) electrons are transferred from reduced NADH and NADPH to pyruvic acid.

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4
Q

Compare and Contrast Aerobic respiration and fermentation

A

Aerobic respiration:

  • requires oxygen
  • goes through krebs/etc cycle
  • produces lots of ATP (~38)

Fermentation:

  • required no oxygen
  • does NOT go through krebs/etc
  • produces significantly less ATP (2)

Both:

  • intake pyruvic acid
  • go through glycolysis
  • ATP generating processes
  • use organic molecule as the final electron acceptor
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5
Q

Describe Lactic Acid and Ethanol fermentation.

A

Lactic Acid and Ethanol Fermentation both go through glycolysis which oxidizes 2 pyruvic acids and produces 2 ATP.

  • But Lactic acid cycle reduces the 2 pyruvic acids into lactic acid in the second stage
  • While Ethanol Fermentation’s second stage reduces the pyruvic acid into acetylaldehyde (which is then further reduced to ethanol)
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6
Q

Discuess moelcules that microbes can break down as sources of energy

A

Carbohydrates
Lipids: Lipase breaks down glycerol and fatty acid into DHAP and Acetyl CoA
Proteins: Protease breaks down proteins to Amino Acids.

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7
Q

Lipase

A

Extracellular enzymes that hydrolyzes lipis to glycerols and fatty acids.

Note: The glycerol and FA are further reduced to Acetyl CoA so that it may enter the Krebs cycles.

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8
Q

Protease

A

Enzyme that breaks down proteins into amino acids that can enter the cell

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9
Q

Deamination

A

Removal of amino group

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10
Q

Decarboxylation

A

removal of carboxyl group

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11
Q

Explain where each portion of a lipid is and where organic acids produced from proteins can enter into the respirator pathway to be used in energy production

A

There are 2 pathways lipids can take to enter krebs once lipase breaks the lipid into glycerol and fatty acid.

1) Gylcerol breaks down into DHAP, which breaks into GP then enter starting with *Glycolysis -> Pyruvic acid -> Acetyl CoA -> Krebs
2) FA becomes Acetyl CoA via beta oxidation and then enters krebs

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12
Q

How much ATP is generated from a glycerol molecule and explain where and how each of these ATP is made

A

1 glycerol -> 1 DHAP -> 1GP
GP is processed via glycolysis -> prepatory stage -> krebs -> ETC.

**20 ATP generated in total

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13
Q

Amphibolic Pathway

A

Pathways that funciton in anabolism and catabolism. It allows for simultaneous reactions (product of one is used to syntehsize anotehr compound)

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14
Q

How much ATP is fenerated form a fatty acid molecule and explain where and how each of these ATP is made

A

1 FA -> 1 Acetyl CoA -> Krebs.
**Different lengths in the FA tail can generate different amounts of ATP. (longer the tail, the more ATP generated)

11ATP (NADH + FADH2) + 1 ATP (Krebs) = 12 ATP total (**for each 2-C group!)

i.e. if 10-C FA, then 5 x 12 = 60

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15
Q

Examples of how molecules are synethsized by cells using krebs cycle intermediates and by using glycolytic intermediates

A

1) DHAP can be used to make glycerol (anabolic)
2) Acetyl CoA can be used to make fatty acids (anabolic)

Processes can work in either reverse order

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16
Q

How are triglyerides syntehsized?

A

1) joining of glycerol to fatty acids. (glycerol is derived from DHAP)
2) dehydration synthesis: ATP supplies energy to form glycerol, FA, and triglycerides. (or can go backwards: FA -> beta oxidation -> 2-C molecule -> Acetyl CoA -> Krebs/ETC/Chemiosmosis -> ATP)

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17
Q

Triglyceride

A

Glycerol + 3 FA groups

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18
Q

Physical Requirements for Microbial Growth (3: TOP)

A

TOP

  1. Temperature: Most mirboes group at temp’s humans life
  2. Osmotic pressure: microbes obtain most nutrients in colution from surrounding water. (isotonic is most ideal)
  3. PH: most bacteria grow best in a narrow pH range.
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19
Q

Chemical Requirements for Microbial Growth (6)

A
  1. Carbon
  2. Nitrogen: needed to syntehsize cellular material and build amino acids and nucleotides (P + sugar + base)
  3. Sulfur: “ “
  4. Trace Elements: (i.e. potassium, calcium, copper, zinc)
  5. Oxygen: aerobes generate more ATP than anaerobes
  6. Organic Growth factors.
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20
Q

Obligate

A

Absolutly requires a specific growth condition in order to survive.
i.e. obligate aerobes must have oxygen exposure just as obligate anaerobes must not have oxygen exposure

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21
Q

Facultative

A

Can survive with or without the nutrient/growth condition, BUT PREFERS OXYGEN because it can generate more ATP

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22
Q

Mesophile

A

“Moderate Loving” microbes. Most common food spoilage and disease microbe

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23
Q

Psychrophile

A

“Cold loving” mircobes. Can grow in refrigerators, found in oceans and polar regions

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24
Q

Psychotrophs

A

More common than Psychrophils.

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25
Thermophiles
"heat loving" microbes.
26
Hypothermophiles
Grow in hot springs, and extreme hot conditions
27
Acidophiles
Tolerant of acidic pHs
28
Halophiles
Tolerant of HIGH salt
29
Optimum growth temperature
species grow best at this temp
30
Maximum growth temp
highest temperature a specie will grow at.
31
Minimum growth temp
lowest temp a specie will grow at
32
How does minimum, optimum, and maximum growth temperatures affect cell growth?
Above max, microbes are destroyed. Near max, microbes struggle to grow (very slow growth) Optimal growth: microbes undergo rapid growth Near minimum, microbes struggle Below min, microbes do not grow significantly
33
Oxygen requirement for Obligate aerobe
100% requires oxygen in order to survive. Growth occurs at the surface where high concentrations of oxygen have diffused into the medium
34
Oxygen requirement for Facultative anerobes
Can grow with oxygen and survive without it, but prefers presence of oxygen because it can yield higher ATP. Grows best at top of tube where oxygen is present, but found throughout the tube in anaerobe environments
35
Oxygen requirement for Microaerophile
Requires oxygen to grow **BUT ONLY SMALL amounts of oxygen. Too much oxygen and it will die, no oxygen and it will also die. Growth occurs only where low concentration of oxygen has diffused into the medium (typically in the middle of the tube)
36
Oxygen requirement for Obligate Anaerobe
100% requires NO OXYGEN or will die | Growth occurs only where there is no oxygen (typically the bottom of the tube)
37
Oxygen requirement for Aerotolerant Anaerobe
Can tolerate both environments with or without oxygen. | Growth occurs evently through out the tube. Oxygenated environments have no effect.
38
Superoxide dismutase
enzyme produced by microbes growing in oxygen to neutralize O2. Conerts O2- to O2 and H2O2
39
Catalase
Enzyme produced by microbes to neutralize peroxides 2H2O2 -> 2H2O2 + O2
40
Peroxidase
Enzyme that neutralized hydrogen peroxide 2H2O2 + 2H+ -> 2H2O
41
Why are obligate anaerobes sensitive to oxygen?
Obligate anaerobes lack enzymes to neutralize harmful forms of oxygen; it thus cannot tolerate oxygen at all.
42
Capnophile
Bacteria that grow better at high concentrations of CO2. Low O2/High CO2 found in intestinal tract and other body tissues
43
Example of a bacterium that has never been grown in lab media
Mycobacterim leprae are grown in armadilos.
44
Binary fission
process by which bacteria reproduce
45
Gneration time
time required for a cell to divide (population to double)
46
Calculate teh number of cells that will exist after a specific period of time if given the generation time of a bacterium
if 1 cell, then 2^0 = 1, | if 2 cells, then 2^1 = 2
47
Microbial growth curve
shows the growth of bacteria culture over time
48
4 phase of microbial growth
1. lag phase 2. log phase 3. stationary phase 4. death phase
49
Lag phage
intense activity preparing for population growth but no increase in population littl eor no cell division. Little change in cell numbers; a lot of metabolic activity
50
Log phase
logarithmic increase in population. exponential growth occurs; cellular reproduction is most active; most metabolically active
51
stationary phase
period of equillibrium; microbial deaths balance population of new cells. ``` no increase or decrease in graph exhaustion of nutrients, accumulation of waste, pH changes Metabolic activities slow, exponential growth stops new cells = death ```
52
death phase
population is decreasing at a logarithmic rate. Number of deaths exceeds number of new cells formed.
53
Sterilization
removal or destruction of all forms of microbes
54
Commercial sterilization
enough heat to destroy spores of Clostridium botulinum
55
Disinfection
directed at controlling harmful effects of microbes | (disinfectants
56
Antisepsis
disinfection of living tissues Anti = none sepsis = bacteiral contamination in present.
57
Degerming
mostly mechanical removal of microbes in a limited area
58
Sanitation
lower microbial counts to safe levels.
59
Asepsis
Absence of significant contamination sepsis = bacerial contamination is present Aseptic = free of pathogens.
60
chemical that is "-cidal" means
treatment that kills microbes | -cidal like suicidal
61
cheimcal that is "-static" means
treatment that inhibits growth and multiplication *Inhibits growth If agent is removed, grwoth may resume
62
Factors that influence how effective an antimicrobial treatment is on microbes
``` TEAM Time of exposure Environmental influences Amount of Microbes Microbial characteristics ```
63
2 actions of microbial growth control agents that result in cell death
1. alteration of membrane permeability. Damage to plasma membrane interferes with cell growth 2. Damage to proteins and nucleic acids. Bonds can be broken by heat and chemicals, damaging enzymes which stops cell activities
64
Examples of physical methods of microbial growth
``` heat and moist heating filtration low temperatures high pressure radiation ```
65
Examples of chemical methods of microbial growth
``` phenols an dphenolics bisphenols biguanides halogens alcohols anitbiotics peroxygens and other forms of oxygens ```
66
Methods for heat/moist heat
boiling, autoclaving, flaming, pasteurization
67
methods for low temperature methods
refrigeration, deep freezing, lyophilization (dehydration at cold temps)
68
methods for Ionization radiation
x rays, gamma rays, electrons
69
methods for nonionization radiation
UV light, lower energy
70
phenols and phenolics
chemical method; damage plasma membrane and denature enzymes
71
bisphenols
chemical method effective against gram negatives
72
biguanides
chemical method; disrupts plasma membranes
73
Halogens
alters membranes; stops protein synthesis; chemical method
74
alcohols
disrupts membranes, denatures proteins, chemical method
75
peroxygens
chemical method; damages cell moelcules
76
heavy metals
chemical method; denatures proteins
77
What is the difference between antibiotics and other chemical methods of microbial control?
Antibiotics can be ingested and injected Antibiotics can be used to TREAT diseases
78
Factors that determine the resistance of microbes to a chemical control agent
1. Biocides are more affective against some microbes than others 2. Characteristics of microbes that determine their resistance. i.e. prions, endospores, mycobacteria
79
Obligate intracellular parasite
requires living in a host cell in order to multiply. Cant grow anywhere except in a living cell.
80
Bacteriophage
virus that infects bacteria; a model system because its not ethical to infect people with viruses so we infect bacteria.
81
Host range
range of host cells a virus can infect. Most infect one or a few cell types in a single host species. i.e. the reason why your dog's sickness wont affect you.
82
4 Distinctive characteristics of viruses
1. Viruses have a single type of nucleic acid (DNA OR RNA), unlike every other organism in the world 2. They have a protein coat that surrounds the nucleic acid. 3. Multiplies inside a living cell using the host cell's machinery (flu virus only has 8 genes and uses our body to function) 4. Syntehsizes structures that can transfer viral nucleic acid to other cells.
83
What determines the host range of a virus?
The specific viral atachement sites on a host cell. No attachment site, then not way for virus to multiply!
84
Viron
Complete infectious viral particle. All viruses are composed of a single nucleic acid (DNA OR RNA) surrounded by a protein coat.
85
Capsid
Protein coat that protects teh nucleic acid
86
Capsomere
Subunits of protein coat.
87
Envelope
Lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates; Only SOME viruses have an envelope.
88
General Characteristic of a virus
all virus are composed of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protective protein coat (capsid--which is made up of capsomeres) Nucleic acid = DNA OR RNA ss or ds linear or circular
89
2 ways an enveloped virus can acquire its envelope
1. In the host cells during release | 2. Virus encodes it
90
Tell the make up and function of spikes
Envelope may be covered with spikes--glycoprotein complexes. Spike proteins are produced by the virus They are part of the envelope (NOT capsid) Used for attachment and identification of some viruses
91
How do some viruses escape the host's immune system? (2 ways)
1. Virus alters the surface proteins that antibodies would typically recognize. 2. Virus coasted in host cell membrane (not foreign to the immune system)
92
3 morphological types of viruses based on their capsid structure
Viruses are classified into morphological types based on capsid structure. 1. helical virus: long rods (ebola) 2. polyhedral viruses: many sided (poli virus) 3. complex viruses: complicated structures (poxviruses)
93
What characteristsics are used to classify viruses into families?
nuclic acid type strategy for replication morphology
94
lysogeny
phage remains latent (inactive) in the cell
95
prophage
phage DNA inserted in bacterial chromosome
96
Specialized transduction
lysogenic phage packages bacterial DNA along with its own into a capsid **Only DNA directly adjacent to the phage can be transferred
97
Give the 2 mehcanisms used by phages to multiply
1. lytic pathways: ends in the host cell lysis/destruction - -lambda phage has a lytic cycle. 2. Lysogenic pathway: host cell remains alive and gets passed along to the next generation
98
Compage and contrast the lytic and lysogenic pathways of phages.
1. Lytic pathway: viral functions are fully expressed and leads to the destruction of teh host cell and release of replicated virus particles 2. Lysogenic: Viral funcitons are latent and phage DNA is integrated into teh host genome and can be replicated together with the host DNA (potential to be carried down along generations) BOTH: ways viruses attach to the host cell
99
5 stages of the lytic cycle
1. viruses attach to the host cell 2. phage penetrates the host cell and injects its DNA 3. Biosynthesis: Phage DNA directs synthesis of viral components byt he host cell 4. Viral components are assembled into virions are mature. 5. Host cell lyses and new virons are released.
100
3 important results of lysogeny
1. lysogenic cells immune to re-inection by teh same type of phage 2. Phage conversion: host cell has new properties 3. Makes specialized transduction possible.
101
Give the processes of multiplication of animal viruses that are shared by both DNA and RNA viruses (5)
1. Attachement: between virus and recepto sites on host cell surfaces. 2. Entry 3. Uncoating: separating of viral nucleic acid from its protein coat by enzymes 4. Biosyntehsis: genetic info copies in nucleus (DNA viruses) 5. Release
102
Pinocytosis
Engulfment by cells into a vesicle. "pino" = hungry/thirty, "cytosis" movement into
103
Fusion
viral envelop fuses with plasma membrane; releases capsid into cell.
104
Compare and contrast bacteriophages and animal viruses
Bacteriophages: tall fibers attach to cell wall proteins, DNA injects into the host cell, biosyntehsis occurs in cytoplasm, uncoating is not req, relases via lysis Animal Viruses: entry via endocytosis or fusion, uncoating occurs, biosyntehsis occurs in the nuclues, chronic infection is latent BOTH: relases via cell lysis.
105
Example of DNA virus
Adenoviridae: Mastadenovirus, causes the common cold
106
Example of RNA virus
Retroviridae, HIV

MicroBio (4 decks)

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