University Test 2 Flashcards

Question

Marco works late every night and is cognitively busy. Why might this make him more impulsive?

Answer 1

Being cognitively busy, as Marco is from working late, reduces the brain's capacity to engage in reflective, controlled decision-making. This increases the influence of impulsive behaviors. For instance, Marco might be more likely to order fast food instead of cooking a healthy meal because his mental resources are occupied with work. Factors like cognitive load amplify the difficulty of resisting immediate gratification, leaving long-term goals, such as maintaining a healthy diet, vulnerable.

Answer 2

Chronic factors, such as personality traits, and contextual factors, such as situational pressures, shift the balance between self-control and impulsivity. For example: - Chronic: Individuals with naturally high self-control are better equipped to resist impulses. - Contextual: Temporary stress, fatigue, or alcohol consumption can tip the scales in favor of impulsivity. A person might skip a workout after a long day at work, even if they typically value fitness. These factors highlight how both inherent tendencies and situational triggers impact goal-oriented behavior.

Answer 3

The Elaboration Likelihood Model explains how people change their attitudes via persuasion, distinguishing between two routes of thinking: the central route, which uses facts and deliberate reasoning, and the peripheral route, which relies on emotions and superficial cues.

Answer 4

The existential dilemma refers to the conflict between humans' instinct for self-preservation and their awareness of inevitable death, often causing distress and anxiety.

Answer 5

Judges who were primed to think about their mortality set significantly higher bonds for a prostitute than the control group, suggesting that mortality salience led them to uphold their cultural worldview more strictly.

Answer 6

When mortality was salient, Christian participants rated fellow Christians more positively and Jewish individuals more negatively, reflecting a bias towards those who shared their cultural worldview.

Answer 7

Sarah represents the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, while Dave represents the peripheral route.

Answer 8

Jeff's persuasion aligns with the peripheral route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model because he relies on superficial characteristics like charisma and attractiveness instead of logical arguments.

Answer 9

Booth represents spiritual transcendence through belief in an afterlife, while Dr. Brennan represents secular transcendence through lasting achievements and contributions to science.

Answer 10

This illustrates the impact of mortality salience, where thoughts about death lead Maria to bolster her cultural worldview.

Answer 11

Liam is using proximal defense by consciously distracting himself. However, this is only a temporary fix, as suppressed thoughts may resurface unconsciously.

Answer 12

According to Terror Management Theory, cultural worldviews and self-esteem act as buffers against death anxiety. Rory’s pressure to meet societal standards reflects an effort to gain self-esteem by aligning with cultural expectations.

Answer 13

Students are more likely to vote for the charismatic candidate because mortality salience increases the appeal of leaders who connect to cultural identity and meaning.

Answer 14

Participants primed with mortality salience became more likely to support charismatic leaders, even when their policies were less practical, demonstrating the influence of death awareness on political preferences.

Answer 15

After mortality salience, participants evaluated a stereotyped individual more positively if they matched the participant's cultural worldview and more negatively if they opposed it.

Answer 16

Mortality reminders related to 9/11 increased support for George W. Bush, showing how existential fears can influence public opinion and reinforce loyalty to leaders perceived as protectors.

Answer 17

Mortality salience leads to harsher judgments and punishments for those who violate cultural norms, as it strengthens the need to defend one's worldview.

Answer 18

Cultural worldview defense is the tendency to uphold and protect beliefs, values, and symbols associated with one’s culture, particularly when reminded of mortality.

Answer 19

Self-esteem helps individuals manage death anxiety by reinforcing their sense of value and alignment with cultural worldviews.

Answer 20

Symbolic immortality is the belief that one will live on through contributions to culture, relationships, or other enduring legacies, helping to mitigate fear of death.

Answer 21

Proximal defenses are immediate, short-term reactions to death anxiety, often involving avoidance or suppression of death-related thoughts. - Ex: When you start feeling anxious about death, you might immediately distract yourself by binge-watching a TV show to avoid thinking about it. Distal defenses are long-term strategies that help reduce death anxiety by bolstering self-esteem or cultural beliefs that provide a sense of meaning or immortality. - Ex: To cope with the idea of death in the long term, you might strengthen your belief in an afterlife or focus on living a meaningful life so that, even though death is inevitable, you feel that your life has purpose and will continue in some way through your beliefs, contributions, or legacy.

Answer 22

Mortality salience might lead the audience to favor the speaker who appeals to shared cultural values, as this reinforces their worldview.

Answer 23

Claire is using a proximal defense, addressing the immediate threat to her safety to suppress thoughts of death.

Answer 24

Obedience is when a person submits to a demand from someone more powerful, often against their own personal wishes. Think of how in "Burn Notice," Michael often has to obey powerful figures to achieve his goals, even when he doesn’t fully agree with their methods.

Answer 25

Obedience involves following an authority figure’s command, whereas compliance is agreeing to a request without the power dynamic. In "Gilmore Girls," Rory might comply with a request from her mom to do a chore, but obedience would be if Lorelai told Rory she had to do it for a reason beyond just asking.

Answer 26

Milgram asked, “Why do good people do bad things?” by examining how people follow authority figures to harmful extremes. In "Bones," a character like Booth might follow a superior’s orders even when it means compromising his personal ethics, similar to the way participants in Milgram's experiment continued shocking learners.

Answer 27

Participants thought they were testing the effect of punishment on learning by "shocking" a learner for wrong answers. They were pushed by the authority figure (experimenter) to continue shocking, even when the learner was in distress. Imagine Shawn from "Psych" being told to keep up his detective work even when his gut tells him to stop. That’s what Milgram’s participants faced, except it involved shocking someone!

Answer 28

The majority of participants followed the instructions to administer the highest shock (450 volts), despite moral reservations. Similar to how Shawn in "Psych" might continue with a wild plan, despite doubts from Gus, because an authority (like his father or a client) told him to keep going.

Answer 29

1. Release from Responsibility: - People feel less guilty when they believe the authority figure is accountable (e.g., Milgram’s participants trusted the researcher). 2. Gradual Escalation of Demands: - Small, incremental requests make it easier to justify continued compliance (e.g., increasing shock levels). 3. Perceived Legitimacy of Authority: - Authority figures seem more credible through titles, uniforms, or respected settings (e.g., lab coats at Yale).

Answer 30

Burger’s study only went up to 150 volts (compared to Milgram’s 450 volts) and found that 70% of participants were still willing to continue past that point. Imagine if Gus in "Psych" was told to go only halfway through an investigation before quitting but was still tempted to go the full route because someone important told him to.

Answer 31

The teacher could hear the learner’s responses (e.g., protests or distress), but obedience levels were still very high, suggesting the authority figure’s presence outweighed the emotional response.

Answer 32

The teacher couldn’t hear the learner’s distress (except for a thumping sound at high voltage), and obedience was similarly high.

Answer 33

When the study was moved from the prestigious Yale University to a less authoritative office building, obedience rates dropped.

Answer 34

Obedience decreased because the teacher could see the learner’s distress and had to make direct contact.

Answer 35

When the experimenter gave instructions over a headset and wasn’t physically present, obedience rates dropped significantly.

Answer 36

It’s when followers choose to identify with a leader’s cause because they agree with it, not because they blindly obey authority.

Answer 37

The principles are: 1. Reciprocation: Feeling obligated to return a favor or gift. 2. Social Proof: Following what others do, especially in uncertain situations. 3. Commitment and Consistency: Sticking to prior commitments to appear consistent. 4. Liking: Being influenced by people you like or find attractive. 5. Authority: Trusting and obeying those in positions of power or expertise. 6. Scarcity: Valuing things more when they seem rare or limited. They explain how people influence each other’s decisions.

Answer 38

It’s a strategy where starting with a small request makes people more likely to agree to a larger one later. In "Burn Notice," Michael might ask for a small favor from someone, knowing it will increase the chances of them helping him with a bigger mission down the line.

Answer 39

Making a large request that is likely to be rejected, then following it up with a smaller, more reasonable request. Imagine if Shawn in "Psych" first asks someone to risk their life for a case (huge request) but then just asks them for a simple piece of information (smaller request), knowing they'll be more likely to say yes to the second one.

Answer 40

Asch tested how people conform to group pressure by asking participants to match lines, even when others clearly gave wrong answers. About 75% of participants conformed at least once.

Answer 41

It’s when people assign more value to something simply because they own it.

Answer 42

Implicit prejudice is automatic and unconscious, while explicit prejudice involves conscious, deliberate attitudes.

Answer 43

The IAT measures how quickly people associate different concepts (e.g., good vs. bad, or white vs. black) to gauge implicit bias.

Answer 44

Milgram’s experiment investigated how far people would go in obeying an authority figure, even if it meant harming someone else. Participants thought they were shocking a learner for wrong answers, but the learner was actually an actor, and the study tested whether participants would continue under the authority figure’s instructions. The study showed that people are often willing to follow harmful orders from authority figures, even when they know the actions are wrong.

Answer 45

The majority of participants were willing to administer increasingly severe shocks to the learner, even when they heard distressing sounds from the learner, with 65% of participants going all the way to the maximum voltage of 450 volts. This revealed the power of authority in encouraging people to carry out actions they might otherwise refuse.

Answer 46

The main ethical concerns were deception, lack of informed consent, and causing psychological distress to participants. Many participants experienced emotional strain, thinking they were harming someone. The study raised significant ethical questions about the cost of knowledge and how psychological experiments should be conducted.

Answer 47

Asch’s experiment examined how peer pressure influenced individuals to conform to a majority opinion, even when that opinion was clearly incorrect. Participants were asked to match the length of a line with one of three comparison lines, with confederates giving incorrect answers. The experiment demonstrated the power of group conformity, showing that people would go along with the group, even when they knew the group was wrong.

Answer 48

About 75% of participants conformed at least once to the incorrect majority, and about one-third of participants conformed on a regular basis. Asch’s findings revealed how powerful social influence can be, making individuals change their answers even when they are certain about the correct one.

Answer 49

Zimbardo’s experiment aimed to investigate how people would behave when placed in a simulated prison environment, with participants randomly assigned roles as either guards or prisoners. The study explored how social roles and situational factors can drastically influence behavior. The results showed that individuals quickly adopted abusive behaviors when in positions of power, leading to the study being stopped early due to ethical concerns.

Answer 50

Sherif’s experiment sought to explore intergroup conflict and cooperation by dividing boys at a summer camp into two groups and setting up competitive activities. The goal was to see how competition could create hostility between groups and whether superordinate goals (goals requiring cooperation between groups) could reduce conflict.

Answer 51

Sherif found that competition created strong intergroup hostility, but when the groups were forced to cooperate toward a shared goal, the hostility decreased and cooperation increased. The experiment demonstrated the power of shared goals in reducing intergroup conflict and fostering cooperation.

Answer 52

Milgram's proximity study aimed to test how physical proximity between the teacher and learner affected obedience. In this variation, the teacher and learner were in the same room. The study found that obedience dropped significantly when the teacher could see the learner’s distress firsthand.

Answer 53

When the teacher and learner were in the same room, obedience dropped from 65% to 40%, showing that direct proximity to the victim made it harder for participants to administer the shocks. This variation illustrated that personal proximity increases empathy, reducing the likelihood of obedience to harmful commands.

Answer 54

Dehumanization involves perceiving individuals or groups as less than human, often associating them with animalistic traits. Moral exclusion occurs when those dehumanized are excluded from moral consideration, meaning moral rules and values no longer apply to them.

Answer 55

The experiment by Goff primes participants with white or black faces, then asks them to identify "degraded objects." When primed with black faces, participants are quicker to identify apes, suggesting that dehumanization associates black individuals with animalistic traits, making them seem less human. This was not observed for other animals like lions or tigers.

Answer 56

This scenario relates to the priming effect in dehumanization. Jenny, after being primed with a Black face, may be quicker to perceive the customer as a threat, reflecting how implicit biases shaped by dehumanization affect judgment. Louis, primed with a White face, may be less likely to perceive the same threat.

Answer 57

The dot-probe task is used to measure automatic threat responses by assessing participants' reaction times to identify the location of dots on a screen. If a threatening image, such as a Black face, precedes the dots, quicker identification of the dots indicates heightened vigilance or threat perception.

Answer 58

In one experiment, participants primed with images of apes (often associated with Black people in dehumanizing contexts) showed quicker judgment that police violence against a suspect was justified, especially if they believed the suspect was Black. This priming effect shows how dehumanization influences perceptions of justified violence.

Answer 59

Based on priming, Maya might be more likely to justify the police violence if she associates the suspect with Blackness and is primed with a Black face, while Pedro, primed with a White face, may show less justification for the same violence. This demonstrates how dehumanization shapes perceptions of fairness.

Answer 60

Generally, people may not explicitly admit to dehumanizing others, as shown by Kteily’s study. He found that American participants rated European groups as highly evolved but viewed minority groups (like Muslims) as less evolved. This shows that dehumanization can be both implicit (unconscious) and explicit (conscious).

Answer 61

In Kteily's experiment, participants were less likely to donate money to victims of drone strikes in the Middle East if they considered these groups to be "less evolved." This demonstrates that dehumanization impacts behavior, such as charitable actions, towards dehumanized groups.

Answer 62

Alex's donation behavior illustrates how dehumanization affects compassion. By viewing the international victims as "less evolved," Alex feels less empathy and is less likely to donate. This shows how dehumanization not only affects attitudes but also behaviors, like charitable giving.

Answer 63

Mohr & Zanna (1990) investigated how exposure to pornography influences men’s behavior towards women. They found that men with a "heterosexist" schema (belief in traditional gender roles) treated women more sexually after being primed with pornography, demonstrating how schemas influence behavior and perceptions.

Answer 64

The heterosexist schema is a mental framework that influences how individuals perceive and interact with women based on traditional gender roles. Men primed with pornography, especially those with a high heterosexist schema, are more likely to objectify and treat women sexually in interactions.

Answer 65

This scenario demonstrates the influence of priming on behavior, where exposure to sexually suggestive ads activates the heterosexist schema. Lucas's behavior reflects how pornography and similar priming can lead to sexual objectification of women.

Answer 66

Stereotype threat occurs when individuals underperform due to anxiety about confirming negative stereotypes about their group, like women in math or Black students in IQ tests. The fear of confirming these stereotypes can undermine confidence and cognitive performance.

Answer 67

Steele & Aronson (1995) found that Black students performed worse on an IQ test when they were told the test measured intelligence, because the fear of confirming racial stereotypes about intelligence caused anxiety and impaired performance.

Answer 68

Due to stereotype threat, Maria might perform worse than she would if she weren't aware of the stereotype that women are worse at math. The fear of confirming this stereotype may cause anxiety, which can negatively affect her test performance.

Answer 69

Self-objectification occurs when individuals, particularly women, internalize external sexualized standards and see their bodies as objects to be evaluated based on appearance rather than personal qualities. This often leads to body shame and unhealthy body image.

Answer 70

Frederickson et al. (1998) showed that women who tried on a swimsuit (compared to a sweater) experienced higher levels of body shame, demonstrating how cultural practices like objectification can lead to self-objectification and impact body image.

Answer 71

Emily’s experience of body shame after wearing a swimsuit for a school presentation reflects self-objectification, where cultural norms around women's bodies contribute to feelings of inadequacy and shame. This scenario demonstrates how external objectification leads to internalized self-objectification.

Answer 72

Piaget suggested that children shift from understanding rules based on authority (such as parents or teachers) to a more mutual respect-based system as they grow. They start to understand fairness and reciprocity, recognizing the benefits of treating others equally.

Answer 73

This illustrates Piaget's shift from authority-based rules to mutual respect and fairness. Rory represents an early stage of moral development where authority governs, while Lane is demonstrating a more advanced stage based on reciprocity and fairness.

Answer 74

Kohlberg proposed three stages of moral development: - Preconventional – Morality based on punishment or reward. - Conventional – Morality based on adherence to social rules and norms. - Post-Conventional – Morality based on abstract principles like justice and human rights.

Answer 75

Shirley is demonstrating Kohlberg's Conventional Stage. She follows the rules of fairness and honesty, showing an understanding of societal norms and expectations, even though her initial hesitation was based on avoiding punishment (Preconventional).

Answer 76

Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's theory overly emphasized justice and abstract principles, ignoring the importance of caring relationships. She suggested that morality also involves empathy, compassion, and caring for others, particularly in relational contexts.

Answer 77

Michael’s actions reflect the Post-Conventional (Balance of Care) stage in Gilligan’s Ethics of Care. He prioritizes the civilian’s immediate well-being over abstract rules like justice, demonstrating a nuanced balance between caring relationships and broader ethical considerations.

Answer 78

Haidt’s Moral Foundation Theory suggests that moral intuitions are based on innate psychological mechanisms that are shaped and modified by cultural practices. These foundations include both individual concerns (such as harm and fairness) and binding concerns (such as loyalty and authority).

Answer 79

This illustrates Moral Foundation Theory, where Brennan focuses on individualizing foundations (harm and fairness), while Booth emphasizes binding foundations (loyalty and authority). Their differing moral intuitions reflect how culture and personal experiences influence their moral judgments.

Answer 80

Moral dumbfounding refers to a situation where people feel strongly that something is morally wrong, but cannot explain why they feel that way. It suggests that moral judgments are often driven by intuition rather than rational explanation.

Answer 81

This illustrates moral dumbfounding, where the characters have a strong moral intuition but are unable to rationally explain their emotional reaction to the situation.

Answer 82

The Motivated Cognition Hypothesis suggests that people’s political and moral views are shaped by psychological needs. For example, conservatives may enhance binding values (like loyalty and authority) to satisfy a need for stability, while liberals may focus on individualizing values like fairness and care.

Answer 83

This scenario illustrates the Motivated Cognition Hypothesis, where Jeff’s conservative stance emphasizes binding values like loyalty, while Annie’s liberal stance highlights individualizing values such as fairness and care.

Answer 84

Studies suggest that individuals in high-power positions are more likely to tolerate or justify their own immoral actions, whereas people in low-power positions tend to judge others' actions more harshly. This is often referred to as the hypocrisy effect.

Answer 85

This scenario illustrates the hypocrisy effect, where Michael, in a position of power, justifies his own moral lapses but judges Fiona’s actions more harshly. This dynamic shows how power can influence moral judgment.

Answer 86

This situation highlights the tension between the individualizing foundations and binding foundations described in Moral Foundation Theory. Brennan represents an individualistic concern (fairness and harm), while Booth represents a binding concern (loyalty to authority).

Answer 87

The Theory of Dyadic Morality suggests that morality is centered around harm done between two people (dyadic relationships). According to this theory, actions are morally significant when one person harms another, and moral judgment is based on this interaction.

Answer 88

Michael is facing a dyadic moral dilemma where the harm done (to either the civilian or the mission) directly involves his actions toward another person. According to the Theory of Dyadic Morality, this type of judgment focuses on the harm caused to individuals in direct relationships.

Answer 89

The theory suggests that when people are in positions of power, they tend to see their own transgressions as more acceptable than the same actions in others. Power can lead to a moral contradiction, where individuals justify their own immoral behavior while condemning similar behavior in others.

Answer 90

Shawn is demonstrating the "Power Increases Hypocrisy" effect. As a leader, he feels that his position justifies his actions, despite the ethical contradictions. This is an example of how power can make people more likely to tolerate their own immoral behavior while criticizing similar actions from others.

Answer 91

Unity/Communal Sharing refers to a relationship structure where individuals view each other as equals, and resources, rights, and responsibilities are shared without distinction. This structure emphasizes togetherness and collective well-being. It’s typically seen in close-knit relationships, like family or close friends, where everyone contributes and shares equally.

Answer 92

Rory and Lorelai’s relationship exemplifies Unity/Communal Sharing, where both share resources and emotional support equally, without concern for personal gain or differences in contribution. This structure is based on mutual care and collective responsibility.

Answer 93

Hierarchy/Authority Ranking refers to a relationship structure where individuals are ranked based on status or power. This structure emphasizes clear roles, responsibilities, and authority, with individuals at higher levels exerting control or influence over those below them. It's common in workplaces, militaries, or families where there is an established power dynamic.

Answer 94

The dynamic between Dr. Brennan and Agent Booth reflects the Hierarchy/Authority Ranking structure. Brennan, as a scientist and expert, typically holds more authority in certain professional situations, while Booth, as an agent, follows her lead, illustrating a power and status hierarchy.

Answer 95

Equality/Equal Matching refers to a relationship structure where individuals exchange resources, favors, or benefits in a balanced manner. This structure emphasizes fairness and reciprocity, with each person giving and receiving in equal measure. It is common in friendships or partnerships where both individuals strive for an equal balance of contributions.

Answer 96

Jeff and Shirley’s interactions in Community exemplify the Equality/Equal Matching structure, as they strive to maintain a fair and balanced exchange of contributions. Both aim to ensure that their efforts are reciprocated, leading to an equitable relationship.

Answer 97

Proportionality/Market Pricing refers to a relationship structure where exchanges are based on proportionality and efficiency. People give and receive according to the relative value of the resources or services exchanged, much like transactions in a market. This structure is common in business transactions or situations where cost, benefit, and value are carefully calculated.

Answer 98

The relationship between Michael and Fiona in Burn Notice exemplifies the Proportionality/Market Pricing structure, where their interactions involve exchanges based on the relative value of the services or resources they provide each other, similar to a market transaction.

Answer 99

Persuasion is the process of influencing people's attitudes and behaviors through communication. It involves changing beliefs, feelings, or actions in response to persuasive messages, which can be based on logical reasoning or emotional appeals.

Answer 100

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM), proposed by Petty and Cacioppo, suggests that there are two main routes to persuasion: Central route: Involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the content of the message. Peripheral route: Involves superficial processing based on peripheral cues (e.g., attractiveness of the source, credibility).

Answer 101

In the central route, individuals carefully consider the logic and strength of the arguments presented in a persuasive message. They are motivated to think deeply and may integrate the message into their belief system if the arguments are convincing, leading to a more lasting attitude change.

Answer 102

In the peripheral route, individuals rely on superficial cues, such as the attractiveness or credibility of the message source, rather than the content of the message itself. This route often leads to temporary attitude change, influenced by factors like the source's appeal rather than the strength of the arguments.

Answer 103

The Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM), proposed by Shelly Chaiken, is similar to the ELM and suggests that people process persuasive messages in two ways: Systematic route (Central route in ELM): Deep, thoughtful processing of the message. Heuristic route (Peripheral route in ELM): Quick, effortless processing based on simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts.

Answer 104

- Motivation: If the message has personal relevance, people are more likely to process it centrally, engaging deeply with the content. - Ability: If individuals have the cognitive resources and time, they are more likely to process messages deeply. If they lack the ability (e.g., distractions, time constraints), they are more likely to process it peripherally.

Answer 105

In the experiment, researchers could present strong or weak arguments for a persuasive message and manipulate peripheral cues (e.g., source attractiveness). If participants process the message centrally, they will be more influenced by the strength of the arguments. If they process peripherally, they will be more influenced by peripheral cues like the source's attractiveness.

Answer 106

Subliminal stimuli are stimuli presented below conscious awareness. They can activate concepts and influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors without the person being aware of it. However, research suggests that subliminal stimuli cannot force people to do something against their will.

Answer 107

Participants who were subliminally primed with an image of a happy child gave more favorable evaluations of the target person compared to those primed with an image of a bloody shark. This demonstrates the influence of subliminal stimuli on attitudes, even without conscious awareness.

Answer 108

Participants who were subliminally primed with thirst-related words drank significantly more than those primed with neutral words. This demonstrates that subliminal stimuli related to a person's needs can influence behavior, such as increasing consumption when thirsty.

Answer 109

Source characteristics include: Attractiveness: Can promote attitude change through the peripheral route (e.g., appealing sources are more persuasive). Credibility: The source's expertise and trustworthiness. Credible sources are more persuasive, especially in peripheral processing. Certainty: Confident expressions can increase persuasiveness, even from less credible sources.

Answer 110

The sleeper effect refers to the phenomenon where a message from a source initially viewed as untrustworthy becomes more persuasive over time as people dissociate the message from its source. This effect occurs when trust in the source is low but grows as the message itself is seen as more plausible.

Answer 111

High-quality messages are persuasive when they are clear, logical, and align with the audience's core values. Messages that explicitly convey desirable outcomes and refute opposing arguments are especially persuasive. Refuting arguments that align with the audience's self-interest, like an anti-smoking message from a cigarette company, can be particularly effective.

Answer 112

Vividness makes messages more engaging and memorable, even if the facts are untrue. The identifiable victim effect suggests that people are more likely to respond to a message when the victim is portrayed as a specific, identifiable person rather than an anonymous or statistical figure.

Answer 113

Fear appeals can be effective if they are accompanied by concrete information on how to deal with the source of fear. For example, graphic anti-smoking ads combined with information about how to quit smoking are more persuasive than fear-based ads alone.

Answer 114

Independent cultures (e.g., Americans) are more persuaded by messages focusing on gains and individual benefits. Interdependent cultures (e.g., Koreans) respond better to messages focusing on losses and the collective impact, emphasizing prevention rather than personal gain.

Answer 115

It refers to the degree to which people think deeply about things.

Answer 116

They are persuaded by high-quality arguments, not peripheral cues.

Answer 117

They place less importance on quality arguments

Answer 118

Persuasive messages are more successful when the mood of the message matches the audience's mood.

Answer 119

Younger people are generally more susceptible to persuasive messages than adults or the elderly.

Answer 120

In large, diverse groups, persuasive messages need to be more abstract and use general terms to be effective.

Answer 121

It refers to thinking about one's own thinking.

Answer 122

It suggests that feeling confident about our thoughts makes us more likely to be persuaded in their direction, while doubting them may lead to rejecting them or endorsing the opposite view.

Answer 123

Nodding the head while reading a persuasive message boosts confidence in the message, while shaking the head may reduce persuasion, especially if the argument is weak.

Answer 124

It is the belief that others are more susceptible to persuasive tactics than oneself.

Answer 125

There is a weak or non-existent correlation between a product's advertising budget and its sales, but it can increase product awareness, brand loyalty, and positive feelings.

Answer 126

There is no significant correlation between ad spending and election outcomes, and negative ads can discourage voting altogether.

Answer 127

They often have little effect on behavior, but certain campaigns (e.g., promoting safe sex) can lead to positive changes. These campaigns tend to be more effective because they often combine clear messages with emotional appeals or social norms, making the message more relatable and motivating. Successful campaigns might also involve targeted strategies (like using relatable role models, creating a sense of urgency, or offering tangible benefits) to help people see the benefits of making a change or the consequences of not doing so.

Answer 128

Media influences perceptions of issues like materialism or happiness, shaping what people view as important or true.

Answer 129

The concept of prominence in media refers to how much attention or visibility a particular issue or story receives in news coverage. This prominence influences how people perceive the significance of that issue. The prominence given to issues in the news affects the public's perception of their importance.

Answer 130

Selective attention and evaluation lead people to focus on information that supports their attitudes and dismiss opposing views.

Answer 131

Strong prior commitments, especially public ones, make it harder to change attitudes without losing face.

Answer 132

It suggests that extended thought on an issue leads to more extreme and entrenched attitudes.

Answer 133

People with significant prior knowledge are more resistant to persuasion because they process messages carefully through the central route.

Answer 134

It involves presenting small challenges to existing attitudes, which helps people resist larger persuasive attempts later.

Answer 135

ELM describes two routes to persuasion: the central route, which involves careful thought, and the peripheral route, which relies on superficial cues.

Answer 136

HSM proposes two routes to persuasion: the systematic route (careful, logical processing) and the heuristic route (use of simple cues).

Answer 137

It involves careful, deliberate thinking about the content and strength of a persuasive message.

Answer 138

It involves relying on superficial cues, like the source's attractiveness or message length, rather than the content of the message.

Answer 139

These are traits of the person delivering a persuasive message, such as attractiveness, credibility, and certainty.

Answer 140

It is when a source initially has little influence but its impact grows over time as people forget its unreliability.

Answer 141

These are elements of the persuasive message, like its conclusion strength, evidence, and argument quality.

Answer 142

It is the tendency to be more moved by the vivid plight of one individual than by a larger, less personal group.

Answer 143

These are traits of the people receiving a persuasive message, including their need for cognition, mood, age, and diversity.

Answer 144

Secondary thoughts about one's primary thoughts, which can influence attitudes and persuasion.

Answer 145

The belief that others are more influenced by persuasive campaigns than oneself.

Answer 146

It refers to media efforts to select and emphasize certain issues, shaping public perception of what is important.

Answer 147

It suggests that more extensive thinking about an issue makes attitudes more extreme and entrenched.

Answer 148

It involves challenging people's existing beliefs with small attacks, which strengthens their ability to resist larger persuasive messages.

Answer 149

Automatic mimicry is the mindless imitation of others’ behaviors, including postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions.

Answer 150

We mimic others for two reasons: 1) ideomotor action (thinking about a behavior makes it more likely), and 2) preparation for interaction (to establish rapport).

Answer 151

Cultures differ in their use and expectations of mimicry. For example, Hispanic subjects performed better in job interviews when mimicked, while there was no difference for Anglo-Americans.

Answer 152

Normative social influence is the pressure to conform to avoid standing out negatively, which affects people’s behavior.

Answer 153

Group size, group unanimity, expertise, and status all influence the pressure to conform.

Answer 154

People from interdependent cultures tend to conform more due to a greater concern for relationships, compared to those from independent cultures.

Answer 155

Tight cultures have strong norms that strictly regulate behavior, while loose cultures have more relaxed norms and tolerate greater variability in behavior.

Answer 156

Minority opinions can influence the majority by consistently presenting well-supported views, which can lead to informational social influence. The majority may start to question their own beliefs and turn to the minority for more credible information. As the minority's perspective gains social validation, it can lead to a shift in attitudes and beliefs, especially if the majority sees the minority as knowledgeable or persuasive.

Answer 157

Studies show that women tend to conform more than men in face-to-face situations, but men conform more in stereotypically female domains, and women conform more in stereotypically male domains.

Answer 158

Majority Influence: Leads to public compliance, where people outwardly agree with the majority to fit in, even if they privately disagree. Minority Influence: Leads to private compliance, where people genuinely change their beliefs due to the minority's consistent and persuasive stance.

Answer 159

1. Direct at the mind: Use logic to evaluate the request. 2. Direct at the heart: Manage emotional reactions that may lead to compliance. 3. Based on the power of the norm: Rely on personal and societal values to resist peer pressure or social conformity.

Answer 160

People are expected to benefit those who benefit them, meaning if someone does a favor, the recipient is expected to agree to any reasonable request in return.

Answer 161

Participants who were given a soda by the confederate bought more raffle tickets, indicating the effect of reciprocity.

Answer 162

It involves asking for a large favor that will be refused, followed by a more modest request (the one you really want), making people feel compelled to respond to the concession.

Answer 163

When students were first asked to counsel juvenile delinquents and refused, they were more likely to agree to the smaller request of chaperoning a zoo trip (50%) compared to the first group (17%).

Answer 164

This technique adds something extra to an original offer to increase compliance.

Answer 165

Participants were more likely to buy cookies when told the price included an extra cookie (73% bought) compared to when no extra cookie was offered (40% bought).

Answer 166

Homeowners who agreed to display a small sign asking others to "Drive Carefully" were more likely to agree to a larger sign request (76%) compared to those who were only asked for the larger request (17%).

Answer 167

People in a positive mood are more likely to comply with requests as they feel charitable and want to sustain their good feelings.

Answer 168

Participants in a good mood (who received a free sample of stationery) were more likely to comply with a request (70%) than those who did not receive the sample (30%).

Answer 169

Participants were more likely to comply when the task was helping, rather than hindering, suggesting that positive mood influences compliance.

Answer 170

People in a negative mood may comply with requests to alleviate guilt or improve their mood (Negative State Relief Hypothesis).

Answer 171

Catholics gave more donations to the March of Dimes on their way out of church, suggesting they were alleviating guilt.

Answer 172

Norm-based approaches influence behavior by appealing to social norms, which are the unwritten rules of a group. They work through: - Emotional appeal: People conform to avoid social rejection or gain approval. - Rational appeal: People follow norms because they see it as the right or beneficial choice.

Answer 173

Households reduced their energy use when informed that their energy consumption was higher than that of their neighbors.

Answer 174

Guests were more likely to reuse towels when the sign referenced other guests in the same room rather than using a generic message.

Answer 175

It is when people overestimate the popularity of destructive behaviors and underestimate the popularity of constructive behaviors.

Answer 176

Participants engaged in heavier drinking because they mistakenly believed that most students were more comfortable with drinking than they actually were. Once their perceptions were corrected—showing that many students felt the same discomfort with drinking—they reduced their own drinking. This demonstrates how pluralistic ignorance can lead people to conform to behaviors they don't actually feel comfortable with, simply because they think it's the norm.

Answer 177

Descriptive norms describe what people typically do, while prescriptive norms describe what people are supposed to do.

Answer 178

Theft of petrified wood decreased when a sign described past visitors' behavior (descriptive norm) rather than what visitors should do (prescriptive norm).

Answer 179

Participants believed they were administering increasingly strong shocks to a learner for incorrect answers, with the experimenter urging them to continue.

Answer 180

Obedience was slightly lower (62.5%) when participants could hear the learner's pleas for mercy compared to when feedback was only heard through pounding on the wall (66%).

Answer 181

As the learner became more "real" or proximate, obedience rates decreased.

Answer 182

Obedience decreased when the experimenter was absent or when there were conflicting orders from two experimenters.

Answer 183

When the experimenter took responsibility for the participants' actions, obedience increased.

Answer 184

Gradual increases in shock intensity led participants to continue administering shocks, similar to the gradual escalation of violence in historical atrocities.

Answer 185

The tendency for people to associate disproportionately with people who are like them.

Answer 186

The ways people influence one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behavior, resulting from the comments, actions, or mere presence of others.

Answer 187

Merely thinking about an action makes performing it more likely.

Answer 188

Reliance on other people's comments and actions as an indication of what is correct, proper, or effective.

Answer 189

Private acceptance of a proposition, orientation, or ideology.

Answer 190

The idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves.

Answer 191

The behavior exhibited by most people in a given context.

Answer 192

The way a person is supposed to behave in a given context, also called injunctive norm.

Answer 193

People experience an unpleasant state of arousal when they believe their free will is threatened, often acting to relieve this discomfort by reasserting their prerogatives.

Answer 194

The economic perspective suggests that stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination happen because groups compete for limited resources, like jobs or money. Negative attitudes toward other groups are used to justify or support the idea that one's own group deserves more of these resources.

Answer 195

The motivational perspective on stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination suggests that people develop negative views of other groups to satisfy psychological needs, such as boosting their own self-esteem or feeling superior. This perspective focuses on how these attitudes help individuals or groups feel better about themselves, often by comparing themselves to others and viewing their own group as superior.

Answer 196

The cognitive perspective on stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination focuses on how our brains automatically categorize people into groups (like race or gender) to simplify the world. This process leads to quick, sometimes biased judgments and reactions toward individuals based on these categories, even if we don't consciously intend to discriminate.

Answer 197

Beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of a particular group, which may be positive or negative, true or false.

Answer 198

An attitudinal and affective response towards a group and its individual members, usually negative.

Answer 199

Negative or harmful behavior directed toward members of a particular group based on group membership rather than individual traits.

Answer 200

A form of prejudice where people reject explicitly racist beliefs but still harbor unconscious negative feelings or discomfort toward minority groups.

Answer 201

Benevolent racism and sexism refer to attitudes where people may appear to show kindness or protectiveness toward a group (like women or racial minorities) but still hold negative views or act with hostility toward those who don't follow traditional norms. For example, someone might be overly protective of women in general but look down on women who challenge traditional gender roles. It's a mix of seeming care and underlying prejudice.

Answer 202

A test that measures unconscious bias by comparing response times when associating groups with stereotypical or contradictory words.

Answer 203

Glorifying one's own group and stereotyping the outgroup, with an emphasis on in-group loyalty.

Answer 204

Research shows that people prefer tough leaders during crises for their ability to manage tough situations, but they prefer more nurturing, empathetic leaders in peaceful times for fostering harmony and cooperation.

Answer 205

The theory that prejudice and discrimination arise from competition over limited resources, especially in times of economic difficulty.

Answer 206

Prejudice arises when groups compete for material resources, leading to discrimination against perceived threats.

Answer 207

The primary goal of the Jigsaw classroom method is to encourage cooperation over competition. In this method, students are divided into small groups, with each member responsible for learning a different part of a topic. After learning their part, they teach it to the rest of the group, promoting teamwork and mutual support. This helps build a sense of interdependence and reduces competition.

Answer 208

Students in jigsaw classrooms report more positive attitudes toward school and other ethnic groups compared to traditional classrooms.

Answer 209

Hostility between groups can develop simply due to the existence of other groups, even without direct competition.

Answer 210

A research approach that explores how arbitrary group distinctions can lead to hostility and favoritism, even when the groups are meaningless.

Answer 211

To observe how participants show favoritism toward their own group (ingroup) when divided into arbitrary groups, like overestimators vs. underestimators.

Answer 212

It suggests that people treat ingroup members better than outgroup members as a way to enhance their self-esteem through group affiliation.

Answer 213

Territoriality in group settings occurs when a group feels a sense of ownership over a specific area, object, or resource. This is often expressed through language or behavior that claims the space as theirs. For example: - A group calling a shared recreational area “our baseball diamond” implies they view it as their territory. - Phrases like "our swimming hole" suggest emotional or cultural ties, even if the space is technically public. Such claims can lead to conflicts if other groups challenge this perceived ownership, reflecting the social dynamics of territorial behavior.

Answer 214

Participants judged a child's academic performance more favorably when they were shown a video of the child in an upper-middle-class background, compared to a lower-class background.

Answer 215

It refers to the tendency to process information in a way that supports existing stereotypes, often disregarding contradictory evidence.

Answer 216

The tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than members of the ingroup.

Answer 217

The Hamilton & Gifford (1976) study showed how illusory correlations lead to biased group perceptions. Participants read equal ratios of positive and negative behaviors for a majority group (A) and a minority group (B). Participants thought the minority group (B) had more negative behaviors than it actually did. This happened because the group was smaller, and negative behaviors stood out more, making them seem more common than they were. In Gilmore Girls, a small group, like a new family, might act out in ways that seem more noticeable because there are fewer of them. Meanwhile, a larger group, like the town's regular residents, might have similar negative behaviors, but those actions blend in with the bigger crowd. This leads to illusory correlation, where the bad behavior of the small group seems more common or important, even though it's not.

Answer 218

People are more likely to notice and remember distinctive or unusual behaviors, especially when they align with stereotypes, which leads to illusory correlations. In Bones, if Dr. Brennan meets a visiting scientist from a small, lesser-known country who is rude during a conversation, she might form an illusory correlation by associating rudeness with all scientists from that country. The visitor's behavior stands out because it's both negative (distinctive) and linked to a minority group, reinforcing a false stereotype.

Answer 219

It occurs when expectations about another group’s behavior lead to actions that confirm those expectations.

Answer 220

In the study by Word, Zanna, & Cooper, interviewers unknowingly treated Black applicants with more distance and less engagement compared to White applicants. As a result, the Black applicants, in turn, responded with less confidence and warmth, mirroring the interviewers' behavior. This led to worse performance evaluations for the Black applicants, even though their qualifications were the same as the White applicants.

Answer 221

Subtyping occurs when individuals who do not conform to a stereotype are viewed as exceptions, thus maintaining the stereotype for the larger group.

Answer 222

In Maass et al.'s study, the key finding was that people describe negative actions by their own group in specific, concrete terms (e.g., "He stole a wallet"), but describe the same behaviors by an outgroup in more abstract, generalized terms (e.g., "They are criminals"). This abstraction helps reinforce stereotypes by dehumanizing the outgroup and making their actions seem like a pattern for the entire group.

Answer 223

Stereotyping is often guided by automatic mental processes that we can override with controlled (deliberate) thinking, but the automatic process cannot be fully eliminated.

Answer 224

In Dernie's study on automatic and controlled processing, both individuals with high and low levels of prejudice showed automatic stereotyping when exposed to stereotypical words (this means they quickly made stereotypical associations without thinking about it). However, they differed in how they controlled or adjusted their thoughts afterward. Those with low prejudice were more likely to consciously correct or reconsider the stereotype, while those with high prejudice were less likely to do so.

Answer 225

Participants described negative actions by ingroup members at a lower level of abstraction (specific actions), while negative actions by outgroup members were described at a higher level of abstraction (generalizing behavior).

Answer 226

Reflexive responses are immediate and automatic, whereas reflective responses are deliberate and controlled, often overriding initial automatic stereotypes.

Answer 227

Attributional ambiguity refers to the uncertainty that members of stigmatized groups feel when trying to understand whether events happen because of their group membership (e.g., race, gender) or due to other factors. In Psych, Gus, as an African American man, might experience attributional ambiguity when interacting with others. For instance, if he is treated unfairly or met with skepticism in a professional setting, he could feel unsure whether this treatment is due to his race or other factors, like the person’s personal biases or the situation at hand. This uncertainty about whether his treatment is based on his race or something else exemplifies attributional ambiguity.

Answer 228

The study found that for black participants, self-esteem was influenced by whether they thought the feedback was based on their abilities or their race, whereas for white participants, feedback had no such effect.

Answer 229

Stereotype threat is the fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s own group, which can negatively affect performance in certain tasks.

Answer 230

When black students believed the test measured intellectual ability, they performed worse than white students. When they believed the test did not measure ability, they performed equally as well as white students.

Answer 231

Simply having participants indicate their race at the top of the page resulted in the same performance decline for black students in stereotype threat conditions, highlighting the impact of race salience.

Answer 232

When reminded of the stereotype that Asians are superior in math, white males' performance in math tasks decreased.

Answer 233

Stereotype threat causes arousal, distractions, and negative thinking, which shift focus from succeeding to avoiding failure, thereby reducing performance on complex tasks.

Answer 234

Disidentification occurs when individuals in stigmatized groups detach from academic or other areas of achievement to protect their self-esteem from the threat of confirming negative stereotypes.

Answer 235

Concealing a stigmatized identity can lead to increased cardiovascular stress, depression, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of anger.

Answer 236

Participants who concealed their sexual orientation performed worse on tasks measuring spatial ability, self-control, and physical stamina.

Answer 237

For intergroup contact to reduce prejudice, groups must have equal status, work together toward shared goals, have supportive community norms, and emphasize individual over group identity in interactions.

Answer 238

The study found that while students initially felt anxiety about cross-race interactions, they showed significant improvements in implicit attitudes toward the other race after living together.

Answer 239

The economic perspective suggests that prejudice arises from competition over limited resources, which can create intergroup conflict.

Answer 240

Social Identity Theory suggests that self-concept and self-esteem derive not only from personal accomplishments but also from the accomplishments of one’s group, leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination.

Answer 241

The Minimal Group Paradigm shows that people will favor their in-group over an out-group, even when the groups are based on arbitrary or meaningless criteria.

Answer 242

Dehumanization involves perceiving others as lacking the complex qualities that make them human, often leading to violence and atrocities by denying the humanity of out-group members.

Answer 243

Basking in reflected glory is when individuals take pride in the achievements of their group, such as fans identifying with a winning sports team.

Answer 244

Superordinate goals are shared objectives that require cooperation between different groups, helping reduce prejudice and foster intergroup harmony.

Answer 245

The Outgroup Homogeneity Effect is the tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than members of one’s own group.

Answer 246

The Stereotype Content Model examines how stereotypes vary based on evaluations of a group’s warmth and competence, identifying ambivalent stereotypes such as high competence/low warmth.

Answer 247

Benevolent sexism expects women to be warm while viewing leaders as competent, creating a dilemma for women in leadership positions. Hostile sexism involves negative attitudes that undermine women's competence and equality.

Answer 248

The Just World Hypothesis is the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get, often used to justify inequalities and blame victims for their misfortune.

Answer 249

Social Dominance Theory explains how societies maintain hierarchies, with dominant groups using individual and institutional discrimination to preserve their status over subordinate groups.

Answer 250

The Great Replacement Theory is a belief, often held by white supremacists, that white people in Western countries are being "replaced" by non-white populations, fueling fear and prejudice.

Answer 251

Dehumanization often occurs during periods of societal turmoil, where out-groups are portrayed as less than human to justify violence and discrimination against them.

Answer 252

White names received 50% more callbacks for interviews compared to Black names.

Answer 253

Similar studies in other countries show mixed evidence, particularly in gender bias studies.

Answer 254

Members of marginalized groups often receive less attention or are discriminated against, such as the historical "No Irish Need Apply" signs in U.S. job postings.

Answer 255

Intersectional identities, like Black women or Asian men, are often seen as "invisible" because they do not fit the prototypical identity of their groups.

Answer 256

Black women were significantly less recognized in a memory task, showing their "invisibility" in the dominant group’s perception.

Answer 257

Wealthier, predominantly white neighborhoods are cooler during heatwaves, with a 4.7°F difference compared to lower-income, mostly people of color neighborhoods.

Answer 258

Highways and industrial sites are more likely to be built in lower-income areas, often affecting marginalized groups more negatively.

Answer 259

Dominant groups are punished less severely for white-collar crimes compared to marginalized groups.

Answer 260

Despite similar drug use rates, Black individuals are disproportionately incarcerated compared to white people, at both state and federal levels.

Answer 261

Tax rates are higher on income from labor than on capital gains, which disproportionately benefits the wealthy.

Answer 262

Mass media often shows close-ups of men's heads but women's torsos, affecting perceptions of competence, with faces being seen as more competent.

Answer 263

Marginalized groups are underrepresented in boardrooms, Hollywood, academia, and other leadership positions, with Indigenous people being notably absent in media representations.

Answer 264

Native American students feel a greater sense of belonging in school when exposed to Native American role models, reducing educational disparities.

Answer 265

The librarian must decide whether to file a book on Black women's history under "Women’s History" or "Black History," reflecting cultural invisibility.

Answer 266

Changing the title from "Master" to "Head" reduced gender bias, with a decrease in the number of students imagining a man in the role and improved accuracy in identifying female leaders.

Answer 267

Stereotype threat occurs when marginalized groups fear confirming negative stereotypes, which can undermine their performance, as seen in studies with women and Black students.

Answer 268

White participants experience increased stress-related hormones when interacting with Black individuals due to fear of appearing prejudiced, while Black participants may feel disrespected.

Answer 269

Diversity boosts creativity, innovation, and wealth, but also leads to less social trust and unequal resource distribution.

Answer 270

People often recount personal hardships instead of acknowledging their privilege when it's pointed out, as seen in studies by Phillips & Lowery.

Answer 271

Dominant groups compare the present to the past, while marginalized groups compare it to an ideal standard, leading to differing assessments of progress.

Answer 272

When both White Americans and Black Americans adopted the same frame of reference, they made more similar assessments of racial progress.

Answer 273

The Marley Hypothesis suggests that dominant groups often ignore the oppression faced by marginalized groups, explaining differences in assessments of progress.

Answer 274

Altruism is unselfish behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for oneself.

Answer 275

Empathic concern is the identification with a person in need and the intention to enhance their welfare by taking their perspective.

Answer 276

Social reward, personal distress, and empathic concern.

Answer 277

Competitive altruism is when individuals try to outdo one another to gain the most esteem through altruistic acts.

Answer 278

Newborns cried more in response to recordings of other newborns' cries than to their own, indicating early empathic concern.

Answer 279

Batson et al.'s study revealed that people who feel genuine empathic concern for someone in distress are more likely to engage in altruistic behavior. In the experiment, participants who felt empathy for a confederate (a person pretending to be part of the study) were willing to endure electric shocks on their behalf, even when they were given the option to simply leave the situation without helping. This shows that empathy can motivate selfless actions to reduce another person's suffering.

Answer 280

Participants in the high empathy condition volunteered more to spend time with someone, even when their actions were anonymous.

Answer 281

People who volunteered more were less likely to die when controlled for initial health, gender, and social contacts.

Answer 282

Altruism and compassion were highly emphasized in the homes of those who rescued Jews during WWII, showing that empathy can be passed from parents to children.

Answer 283

Subtle situational factors, like hurry, significantly affected whether participants helped someone in need.

Answer 284

Diffusion of responsibility is when people are less likely to help when others are present because they assume someone else will intervene.

Answer 285

Participants were more likely to help when they were alone (85%) compared to when others were present (31%).

Answer 286

People are more likely to help when harm is clear and the victim's need is unambiguous.

Answer 287

Piliavin & Piliavin's study found that people were more likely to help a victim who was bleeding compared to a victim who was not bleeding. The study suggested that the visible sign of injury (bleeding) increased the urgency for intervention and made bystanders more likely to take action. This indicates that people may be more motivated to help when they perceive a victim's need as more immediate or severe.

Answer 288

Pluralistic ignorance occurs when bystanders assume others are not helping because they seem calm, leading to a lack of intervention.

Answer 289

In a group, bystanders are less likely to help due to pluralistic ignorance, assuming no emergency exists.

Answer 290

People in rural areas are more likely to help strangers than those in urban areas, possibly due to greater social cohesion and less diffusion of responsibility.

Answer 291

Lower-class individuals tend to engage in more prosocial behavior, possibly due to stronger relationships and greater empathy.

Answer 292

Religious primes increase generosity, suggesting that religious cues can motivate altruism.

Answer 293

Kin selection favors behaviors that increase the survival of genetic relatives, leading individuals to help close kin over distant relatives or non-kin.

Answer 294

Reciprocal altruism is the act of helping others with the expectation that they will help in return in the future.

Answer 295

Sending Christmas cards to strangers led 20% of recipients to send cards back, demonstrating the social norm of reciprocation.

Answer 296

Gratitude can enhance altruistic behavior, as individuals who feel grateful may be more likely to help others.

Answer 297

Cooperation activated reward-related regions of the brain.

Answer 298

The likelihood of interacting with someone in the future increases cooperativeness.

Answer 299

Defectors hinder cooperation.

Answer 300

Gossip increases cooperation by making people aware of threats to their reputation.

Answer 301

84% of participants exposed to hostile words defected, while 57% of those exposed to neutral words defected.

Answer 302

Participants in the "Community Game" cooperated more than those in the "Wall St. Game."

Answer 303

Cooperation in one round of a game influenced others' generosity in subsequent rounds.

Answer 304

Economics professors were twice as likely to give nothing to charity compared to professors from other disciplines.

Answer 305

Interdependence in a culture predicts greater generosity in cooperative behaviors.

Answer 306

Cooperate on the first round, then reciprocate based on the opponent’s previous move.

Answer 307

Social reward is motivated by benefits like praise, while personal distress arises from a need to reduce one's own distress.

Answer 308

Kin selection is an evolutionary strategy where individuals prioritize helping their genetic relatives, even if it involves personal sacrifice. The idea is that by aiding relatives, they indirectly ensure the survival and continuation of their shared genes. For example, an animal might risk its life to protect its siblings or offspring because they share a significant portion of its genetic material. This behavior increases the overall chances of the family’s genes being passed to future generations, even if the individual itself does not directly reproduce.

Answer 309

The sense of urgency to help is reduced because people assume others will intervene in an emergency.

Answer 310

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group, while discrimination is unfair treatment based on group membership.

Answer 311

Self-esteem is derived from group membership and success, leading to ingroup favoritism.

Answer 312

It is typically attributed to group dispositions rather than situational factors.

Answer 313

Yes, people can be prejudiced without being aware of it. Researchers have used implicit association tests (IAT) to measure unconscious biases, showing that individuals may hold prejudiced views without consciously endorsing them.

Answer 314

Yes, it could be considered sexism because the CEO is assigning the task based on gender stereotypes, suggesting that women are better party planners than men, which reinforces traditional gender roles.

Answer 315

- Competition between groups increases hostility. - Cooperation between groups leads to reduced conflict. - Superordinate goals (goals requiring cooperation between groups) can reduce intergroup hostility.

Answer 316

Prejudice and discrimination are not inevitable. While automatic processing can lead to biases, controlling processing allows for conscious regulation of these tendencies. Prejudice and discrimination are more likely under certain conditions, such as when cognitive resources are limited or when intergroup contact is minimal.

Answer 317

You would assess current levels of prejudice, promote intergroup contact and cooperation, implement diversity training, and foster an inclusive environment through school policies and curricula that challenge stereotypes.

Answer 318

Practice, having allies, avoiding slippery slopes, and delaying responses to emotion-based requests can all enhance the ability to resist social influence.

Answer 319

People are surprisingly willing to obey authority figures, even when their actions conflict with personal morals. This is influenced by the stepwise nature of requests, the ability to defer responsibility to the authority, and the emotional distance from the victim.

Answer 320

Burger’s participants were more diverse in terms of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender, while Milgram's study primarily involved middle-class males.

Answer 321

Larger group size (up to about 4 people), unanimity, and higher group status or expertise increase the likelihood of conformity. People from interdependent cultures and women also tend to conform more.

Answer 322

Having an ally can significantly reduce conformity pressure, as seen in Asch’s conformity experiments, where even one dissenter made it easier for participants to resist the majority's influence.

Answer 323

In Hispanic cultures, normative influence might be stronger due to a greater emphasis on family and social harmony. In Anglo-American cultures, informational influence may play a larger role due to the value placed on individual autonomy and logic-based decision making.

Answer 324

Tuning in the learner involves making the learner more present, such as having them physically close or giving feedback, which increases obedience as participants can see the impact of their actions.

Answer 325

Vivid messages are more persuasive because they capture attention and make the issue more emotionally engaging, such as through the identifiable victim effect.

Answer 326

Metacognition affects persuasion by causing individuals to reflect on their own thoughts about a message. If they feel confident in their thoughts, the message is more persuasive; if they doubt their thoughts, persuasion is less effective.

Answer 327

1) Use of "play" money, not real money 2) Norms of cooperation in the lab environment 3) Awareness of being observed influencing behavior.

Answer 328

Lower-class individuals may have greater empathy due to shared experiences of hardship and a greater sense of social responsibility, which can foster prosocial behavior.

Answer 329

The tit-for-tat strategy is cooperative, non-envious, forgiving, and easy to read, encouraging mutual cooperation and maximizing long-term outcomes.

Answer 330

The kin selection hypothesis suggests that people are more likely to help close relatives in order to preserve shared genes and ensure their survival.

Answer 331

Reciprocal altruism occurs when individuals help others with the expectation that their helpful behavior will be returned in the future.

Answer 332

Fiona is likely using normative social influence. She is adjusting her behavior to fit in with the group to avoid standing out and potentially jeopardizing the mission. This happens because people often conform to the behaviors of others in social settings to gain social acceptance or avoid conflict.

Answer 333

Jeff is likely experiencing informational social influence, where he conforms because he believes that Shirley knows more or has better information about the project. This type of influence occurs when people rely on others as a source of information to make decisions, especially when unsure.

Answer 334

Dr. Brennan is using the “that’s-not-all” technique, where a person adds an additional offer after the initial request, making it seem more appealing. This works by creating the perception of a better deal, which increases the likelihood of compliance.

Answer 335

Emily is likely using the peripheral route to persuasion, as she is influenced more by emotional appeals (Lorelai's heartfelt appeal) than by the actual content or logical arguments. This route is common when people don’t have the motivation or ability to process information deeply.

Answer 336

Shawn and Gus are demonstrating reciprocal cooperation, where they cooperate by providing complementary skills. This collaboration increases their chances of success by pooling their strengths, a principle often seen in real-life teamwork.

Answer 337

The bystander effect is at play, as the presence of others may lead to a diffusion of responsibility, where no one feels personally accountable to help. Dr. Brennan could reduce this effect by directly addressing an individual (e.g., "You in the red shirt, could you help me with this?"), which could make them feel more responsible for assisting.

Answer 338

Rory’s metacognition—thinking about her own thinking—can influence the effectiveness of her persuasion. If Rory feels uncertain about her arguments, it may weaken her persuasiveness because her self-doubt may be perceived by her grandparents. Positive self-reflection can help strengthen persuasive attempts by increasing confidence.

Answer 339

Michael’s behavior could be driven by empathic concern, where he helps the man because he feels compassion for his plight, even at personal cost. This is an example of pure altruism, where the motivation is to improve someone else's well-being, regardless of any direct benefit to oneself.

Answer 340

Abed is using the door-in-the-face technique, where he makes an initial large request (watching the entire series), which is likely to be rejected, and then follows up with a smaller, more reasonable request (watching one episode). This technique works because the second request seems much more manageable in comparison, increasing the likelihood of compliance.

Answer 341

Shawn is experiencing normative social influence, where he changes his behavior to fit in with the group and avoid standing out. This type of influence is often driven by the desire for social acceptance or to avoid rejection.

Answer 342

This is an example of obedience, where Dr. Brennan follows Booth’s authority even though she might not personally agree. Obedience occurs when a person complies with the demands or orders of an authority figure.

Answer 343

This situation demonstrates cognitive dissonance, the discomfort that arises when a person holds two contradictory beliefs or behaviors. Rory could resolve this conflict by either changing her behavior (focusing more on studying) or justifying her actions (telling herself that socializing is also important for her well-being).

Answer 344

This is an example of groupthink, where the desire for harmony or conformity in a group leads to poor decision-making. It’s dangerous because it discourages critical thinking and leads to decisions that may not be in the best interest of the group.

Answer 345

Michael is demonstrating ingroup bias, the tendency to favor members of one's own group over outsiders. This affects his behavior by influencing him to rely on and trust his old team, which could lead to biases in decision-making and overlooking the potential value of new allies.

Answer 346

Jeff is using the foot-in-the-door technique, where a person gets someone to agree to a small request before making a larger one. It works because agreeing to the small request increases the likelihood of compliance with the larger one, due to the desire to remain consistent with previous actions.

Answer 347

This is an example of the norm of reciprocity, where people feel compelled to return favors. It benefits both parties by creating a system of mutual support and cooperation, which strengthens relationships and promotes helpful behavior.

Answer 348

This reflects the just-world hypothesis, the belief that people get what they deserve, and that the world is fair. This can lead individuals to blame victims for their misfortunes or assume that people with success have earned it purely through their own merit.

Answer 349

Fiona is experiencing stereotype threat, which occurs when individuals are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group. This anxiety can negatively affect her performance by causing her to second-guess her skills and abilities.

Answer 350

Michael is displaying a communal sharing (unity) relationship, where he helps based on the group’s needs rather than merit or reciprocity. This moral motive is rooted in collective responsibility and a shared fate, emphasizing the care and support of his in-group, with no expectation of return.

Answer 351

Booth is engaging in an authority ranking (hierarchy) relationship, where the moral motive is shaped by respect for those in higher ranks. Booth’s actions are guided by the hierarchical structure, with moral duties attached to his subordinate position, such as respecting authority and fulfilling responsibilities towards those above him.

Answer 352

This scenario illustrates the concept of moral hypocrisy as it relates to power. The professor is in a position of high power, and studies show that people in such positions are more likely to accept their own transgressions. The professor justifies bending the rules for himself while holding others to a stricter standard, reflecting how power increases moral contradiction.

Answer 353

If the students perceive the Dean’s power as illegitimate, the moral hypocrisy effects are diminished. Studies show that when power is seen as unjust or unearned, individuals are less likely to accept contradictions or moral failures associated with that power. The students may challenge or resist the Dean’s decisions more actively.

Answer 354

Shawn and Gus are operating under an equal matching (equality) relationship, where the moral motive is based on in-kind reciprocity—they expect a fair exchange, and their actions are guided by the principle of “an eye for an eye.” They track costs and benefits, ensuring they are compensated appropriately for their efforts.

Answer 355

Rory’s behavior is an example of market pricing/proportionality. When money is offered, the effort should ideally match the proportionality of the compensation, but because the amount is minimal, her effort drops. This reflects the principle of moral trade-offs, where the effort or cost of an action is weighed against the expected benefit, and if the ratio doesn’t seem fair, motivation decreases.

Answer 356

Gus is demonstrating a communal sharing (unity) moral motive, where he helps Shawn based on their shared relationship and mutual care, rather than for personal gain. This reflects the communal sharing type of relationship, where the focus is on group cohesion and collective responsibility, and actions are guided by need, not merit or reciprocity.

University Test 2 Flashcards

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