Urban Futures

Question 1

Explain how the global pattern of urbanisation is changing

Answer 1

In ACs it reached its peak in 1950s due to the baby boom after the second world war. Building of new houses led to urban sprawl. Most ACs now have populations over 70% urban.
EDCs and LIDCs: economic development in urban areas have driven rural-urban migration (urbanisation) almost 200 million have moved to urban areas between 2000-2010. Cities in Asia and Africa have now overtaken the earlier cities of Europe and North America.

Question 1

Explain how can we make our cities more sustainable?

Answer 1

Singapore is responsible for housing 5.7 million people in a city smaller than London.
The HDB has already built over 1 million flats.
Special computer modelling allows Singapore to funnel natural wind throughout the city. Cities have a ‘heat island effect’, cities are always warmer due to the amount of concrete and man made materials. Singapore does not need to spend as much on AC
Singapore has used land reclamation and increased their land size by 23%
Underground roads and superhighways to save more space
Many singapore housing has trees and plants on rooftops for oxygen and taking in CO2, also helps with stress
Investing in future tech not only allows higher paying jobs, but it also encourages companies such as Airbus to go into Singapore to deliver packages automatically to people’s houses, this could also reduce congestion in roads
93% of food is currently imported
Sustenir agriculture opened the world’s first vertical farm in 2012, crops can grow inside without soil
Singapore has very little land, so vertical farming is very helpful.
New technology that creates jelly which has just the right amount of nutrients we need.
2 billion litres of water a day in singapore.
17 storage reservoirs of freshwater, thinking about resource reliance.
Desalination is more resilient and easier to rely on.
Singapore currently import half of its daily water requirements
TUAS desalination plant
Reverse osmosis filters, salt in sea water gets separated from the water
Electrodialysis uses electricity to remove salt from seawater

Question 2

What is a megacity?

Answer 2

A city with over 10 million inhabitants.

Question 3

What do AC, EDC and LIC stand for?

Answer 3

Advanced country, emerging developing country, low income country

Question 4

What percentage of people in the UK live in an Urban Area?

Answer 4

83%

Question 5

Why is London considered a global city?

Answer 5

The city’s creative energy, cultural diversity, and rich heritage serve as compelling magnets, drawing millions of visitors each year, many of whom flock to some of the globe’s most renowned museums, including the British Museum, Tate Modern, and the National Gallery. The ability that London has of attracting people to the city is what makes it a global city

Question 6

Describe how many people currently live in slums: is this number decreasing/increasing?

Answer 6

1 in 3 urban dwellers live in a slum household. over 25% in China, and 50-77% in Nigeria. (From 1990 to 2014) From 2000-2018 urban population living in slums has very steadily stayed around the same, however urban population not living in slums has increased by about 1.5 billion

Question 7

Explain the definition of Urbanisation

Answer 7

The increasing percentage of the population living in an urban area.

Question 8

Explain the definition of an urban area

Answer 8

An area with high population and building density. Predominantly man made features with a wide range of services, industry and transport infrastructure.

Question 9

Explain the definition of a rural area

Answer 9

An area with low population and building density that is denominated by countryside/natural environment.

Question 10

What is counter urbanisation

Answer 10

The movement of people away from urban areas to rural.

Question 11

What is the definition of a world city

Answer 11

A city considered to be an important node in the global economic system and one which has iconic status and buildings, e.g. London.

Question 12

What is the definition of suburbanisation

Answer 12

A change in the nature of rural areas such that they start to resemble the suburbs.

Question 13

Describe the changing distribution of mega cities since 1950

Answer 13

• in 1950 world population was approximately 2,525,778,000 and around 29% urbanised. The only 2 megacities present were Tokyo and New York
• In 1980 world population was around 4,449,048,000 and 39% urbanised. Now 5 megacities - the new ones being: Mexico city, Osaka and Sao Paulo
• By 2010, more than half - 51.6% - of the world’s population of 6,916,183,482 lived in urban areas. So, in 2010, more people lived in cities than were on the planet in 1950. Now 23 megacities
• While the future cannot be predicted with certainty, projections suggest that in 2030, world population will be near 8,500,000,000 and 60% of them will live in urban areas.

Question 14

Push and pull factors for suburbanisation

Answer 14

Overcrowding: High population density and congestion in urban areas can be a significant push factor. Suburban areas often offer more spacious and less crowded living conditions.

High Cost of Living: The increasing cost of living in urban centres, including high housing prices, property taxes, and general expenses, may push people to seek more affordable options in the suburbs.

Traffic Congestion: Urban areas often face traffic congestion, leading to longer commuting times. Suburban living can be appealing due to the promise of shorter commutes and less time spent in traffic.

Pollution: Environmental concerns, such as air and noise pollution, can be a push factor. Suburban areas are often perceived as having cleaner and healthier environments.

Crime Rates: High crime rates in urban areas may drive people away in search of safer neighbourhoods and communities in the suburbs.

Limited Green Spaces: Lack of parks and green spaces in urban areas can be a push factor. Suburban living often offers more access to nature and recreational areas.

Pull Factors:

Better Quality of Life: Suburban areas are often associated with a better quality of life, offering quieter neighborhoods, lower crime rates, and a sense of community.

Affordable Housing: The cost of housing in suburban areas is often lower than in urban centers, making homeownership more accessible to a broader population.

Good Schools: Suburbs are frequently known for having good school systems, which can be a significant pull factor for families with children.

Lower Density: Suburban areas typically have lower population densities, providing residents with more space and a less hectic lifestyle compared to urban living.

Improved Infrastructure: Suburban areas may have newer and more extensive infrastructure, including roads, schools, and recreational facilities, making them attractive places to live.

Communal Living: Suburbs often promote a sense of community and neighbourly connections, which can be appealing to those seeking a more communal living experience.

Job Opportunities: Some suburban areas are home to business parks and commercial developments, providing job opportunities closer to residential areas and reducing the need for long commutes to urban centres.

Question 15

Push and Pull factors of urbanisation

Answer 15

Push factors: lack of job opportunities, poorer infrastructure, lack of clean water, crop failure, natural disasters, fewer services, wages are at poverty levels, increased food insecurities.

Pull factors: more transport networks, more entertainment, better access to food, better quality housing, stable government, political freedom, better healthcare, greater range of employment

Question 16

Advantages and Disadvantages of Mega Cities in LIDCs

Answer 16

Advantages: a growth of the informal sector allows local entrepreneurial talent to thrive and helps tackle unemployment. Strong community in slums, self help housing provides a solution to housing shortages. Cities usually have lower infant mortality rates, education and infrastructure is better in cities.

Disadvantages: People living in slums, tend to occupy land which is not fit for development, so they can be at risk of landslides and floods. The government rarely supports the informal sector as it avoids tax, lack of coordination makes planning of services difficult, environmental problems like water shortages and contamination, sewage disposal and air pollution. Inland migration tends to happen quicker than the pace of economic and social development.

Question 17

Describe the changing distribution of world cities since 1950

Question 18

Explain the consequences of constant rapid urbanisation

Answer 18

Informal sector: require little capital to setup, require few skills, labour intensive and small scale, don’t pay taxes and do not contribute to the countries GNP, the workers don’t have legal rights, would not receive advantages such as holiday or sick days.
Informal housing: shanty towns, gecekondu, usually land which is unsuitable for building, such as a dry river bed, which can easily fill with water, or unsafe lands on slopes or next to industrial activity, infrastructure is poor in these areas, electricity and water is not reliable, crime is common and disease is easily spread.

Question 19

Understand the causes and consequences of contrasting urban trends in ACs, including:

Answer 19

Suburbanisation: starts in the mid-late twentieth century, move towards home ownership in the UK in the 1970s, this meant that private housing estates being built on the edge of cities, building in these areas allowed people to have more land.
Consequences: Increased congestion and pollution from commuting, buildings in the city are left vacant and these buildings may look derelict and vulnerable to vandalism. Creates a demand for out of town retail parks

Counter urbanisation: causes: people moving out of the city tend to be the most affluent, tend to be those with young children who think that the countryside would be a better place to bring them up.
Push factors from the city: e.g traffic congestion, higher cost of living, perception of high crime, poor air quality
Main pull factor: rural idyll, better road and rail links, allowed people to live further away from their place at work, businesses with offices are now moving to more rural locations where the land prices are cheaper and the quality of life for workers are better.
Consequences: Counter-urbanisation causes dormitory villages where residences work in the city during the day, and only return to their rural homes in the evenings, house prices increase rapidly in relatively rural areas just outside of urban centres such as Hemel Hempstead, long term residence of villages fear that the character is changing, local people can be priced out of the market as wealthier city people buy up and renovate old houses raising the profile of the settlement and subsequently the cost of the properties this is gentrification.

Re urbanisation: Causes: people are returning to live in the city particularly in inner city areas, government initiatives encourage people and businesses’ back into the city; for example staff may be paid a premium for new jobs in deprived areas. Grants have been available to retailers to take on derelict buildings. Young people, moving to the city for university and to find work, need housing close to amenities and institutions. Gentrification has also helped to revive inner city areas where the housing offers easy access to work and entertainment in the city centre. With better health care in the cities, older people who moved to rural areas when they retired may seek to return to the city for better access to hospitals.
Consequences: the redevelopment of inner city urban areas creates new jobs and homes which attracts people from outside to move there. There can be a lack of affordable housing which can lead to expensive new apartments being left empty. Increase in traffic congestion due to increased number of residents. The process of gentrification might mean that working class people are unable to buy or rent property in the city.

Question 20

Reurbanisation:

Answer 20

the use of initiatives to counter problem with inner city decline

Question 21

Local regional and even world importance London

Answer 21

London has great importance due to its high connectivity it has an orbital motorway and a series of motorways linking it with the other major centres in the UK M1-Leeds M4-Bristol M2-Dover. It is also the focus of the rail network with major rail terminals such as Waterloo and Paddington it has 6 international airports and Heathrow has 5 terminals its also the terminus of the international Eurostar rail service London city airport is located very close to the Central Business District which now has daily flight and New York and many of Europe’s global hub. World Network of Financial Centres London has become the international financial centre for Europe and is one of three world financials cities alongside New York and Tokyo, many Global banks have headquarters.

Transnational corporations (TNCs) - London has become the place where TNCs
prefer to locate. Of the 500 transnational companies in the UK, 271 have their
headquarters in London and a further 28% are located along the M4 corridor. This
provides opportunities for other business services to locate near their clients.
● Market - London is the largest and most affluent market in the UK and therefore top
international retailers have locations in London to take advantage of this market.
Patterns of migration and how this has changed the character of the city:
London has also been greatly affected by migration. In 2015 its population reached 8.6
million. The large number of financial and knowledge-based job opportunities has attracted
people from elsewhere in the UK and the rest of the world. In 2011, 191,000 people from
elsewhere in the UK moved into London seeking employment. In 2011 38% of London’s
population were born abroad. London is the most diverse city in the world and the second
most diverse city in the world.
It is estimated that up to a third of all international migration into the UK is into London. As a
result, London has the most culturally-diverse population in the UK. It also has a different
population structure to the rest of the UK, as it has many more young people and fewer older
people.
The 2012 London Olympics bid was partly successful on the understanding that a sporting
complex would be created in Stratford for the Games and regenerated for local people to
use after the competitors had left. After the Olympic Games were over, the park was named
the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park.

Question 22

Explain the Causes of Lagos both in relation to natural increase (what is the fertility rate in Lagos?) and migration (what are the pull and push factors)

Answer 22

Migration has a large contribution to Lagos’ growth. In Lagos national migration is more important than international, 83% of migration is national. The top 3 states of migration are Ogun, Osun and Oyo. Many people in the rural areas of Nigeria are migrating to places such as Lagos. This is because there are a wider variety of high skilled job opportunities (tertiary sector jobs) such as finance and marketing, more teaching and nursing opportunities, drought and creeping desertification in the North. Desertification can cause there to be differences in crop yields so it’s difficult to make a profit, this forces people to go to Lagos to become more consistent with their salaries by working in higher paid jobs.

A very important social reason for growth is natural increase - in Lagos the fertility rate is 3.5, which is above replacement level (2.1) therefore there is significant growth just through natural increase. The larger the population the more people are contributing to the economy. Lagos also has a very young population, so due to natural increase the population will grow even more. By 2050 Nigeria will have twice the population it has today, more than half will live in cities, and about 60% of them will be under 25, this means there will be a large working population.

The rapid growth of Lagos, one of the largest cities in Africa, has had significant social, economic, environmental, and political impacts. First there are some social impacts: The rapid growth of Lagos has led to a significant increase in population density, leading to overcrowding, increased crime rates, and the spread of diseases. The provision of essential services such as healthcare, education, and housing has become inadequate, leading to a decline in the quality of life of many Lagos residents. Also there are some economic impacts: Lagos has become an economic hub, attracting people from all over Nigeria and the world. While this has led to an increase in employment opportunities, it has also resulted in income inequality, as many people are unable to access well-paying jobs. The city’s infrastructure has also struggled to keep up with the demand for services, leading to issues such as traffic congestion, which can impact businesses and the economy negatively. Lagos’ technology is also very far behind many other global cities.

Environmental impacts: The rapid growth of Lagos has led to increased pressure on the city’s environment, resulting in issues such as air pollution, poor waste management, and deforestation. The city’s rapid development has also led to the destruction of wetlands and other natural habitats, impacting biodiversity and contributing to climate change. Political impacts: The rapid growth of Lagos has had significant political implications, including the need for effective governance and leadership. Inadequate planning and governance have led to issues such as inadequate infrastructure, poor housing, and traffic congestion, which have negatively impacted the quality of life of many Lagos residents. The government also refuses to build clean water sources in slums as the housing is considered as illegal.

Overall, the most significant impact of the rapid growth of Lagos is arguably the social impact, as it affects the quality of life of a significant portion of the city’s residents. However, the other impacts are also significant and cannot be overlooked, as they have far-reaching consequences for the city and its inhabitants.

Question 23

How important is Lagos? To understand its importance at a regional, national and global level.

Answer 23

Lagos is one of Africa’s economic hubs, its GDP alone is larger than that of West African neighbours Niger, Benin, Togo, Chad, Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Gambia put together.
This makes it a big attraction to foreign workers.

Nigeria is known for its exporting of oil (and Lagos does export some of this) but in their drive to diversify Lagos has been leading nationally with over $10bn of non-oil exports in 2016.

As one of the fastest growing and wealthiest cities in Africa, Lagos is seen as a key investment site for foreign companies and investors, such as Nestle and Shell.

90% of all companies in Nigeria chose to locate their HQ in Lagos.

Question 24

Explain the contemporary challenges posed in London (6)

Answer 24

With a rapidly growing population due to rapid urbanisation, a major challenge London faces is pollution. As the population increases, the amount of cars on the road also increases, which has an overwhelming effect on air quality. Approximately 50% of air pollution in London is caused by transport on roads. Large concentrations of sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide can cause serious health issues - nearly 10,000 people living in London die prematurely each year as a result of toxic gases in the air, therefore clearly pollution is a major problem London faces.

Another major issue facing London is the housing crisis. As the population of the city continues to grow, the demand for homes is surpassing the city’s supply. London would have to build 66,000 new homes each year to meet its growing need, which is a target London clearly struggles to meet. The supply and demand have led to rental and housing prices to increase substantially, forcing suburbanisation for many people, where rent is cheaper. People living farther from their jobs weakens the economic value of the city + widens inequality.

Question 25

Evaluate how Lagos is meeting one of the challenges it faces (8)

Answer 25

A major challenge that Lagos faces is waste in Makoko slum. One attempt at meeting this challenge was the introduction of a company called ‘Wecyclers’. Wecylers is a social enterprise that aims to create sustainable waste management solutions in Nigeria. The company collects recyclable materials from households and small businesses in low-income neighbourhoods and then sells these materials to recycling companies.

In terms of the economy, Wecyclers has been able to secure funding from various sources, including grants, corporate partnerships, and investments. This indicates that the company is seen as a viable and valuable solution to the waste management challenges in Nigeria. However, the long-term economic sustainability of Wecyclers will depend on its ability to scale its operations and generate sufficient revenue to cover its costs and generate profits.
In terms of long-term progress, Wecyclers has shown steady growth since its founding in 2012. The company has expanded its operations to new neighbourhoods and has increased its capacity to collect and process more recyclable materials. This growth indicates that Wecyclers has the potential to continue making progress in the future, and grow even more as a company, provided it can maintain its current momentum.

In terms of environmental sustainability, Wecyclers is making a positive impact by diverting waste from landfills and reducing the amount of pollution caused by waste disposal. However at the moment, Wecyclers only takes the recyclable waste, it is not having an impact on food waste and other waste, which is a very big issue. Overall, while Wecyclers faces challenges in terms of long-term economic sustainability, the company has made significant progress in addressing waste management challenges in Nigeria and has the potential to continue making a positive impact in the future. It encourages people to have a positive attitude (nudge theory) additionally more jobs were created, particularly creating employment in slums.

Question 26

How much has Lagos grown? Why is it growing so rapidly? Use data/evidence to support your answers

Answer 26

The UN says 14 million. The Lagos State government thinks it’s nearer 21 million, as rural Nigerians are drawn by the hope of a better life to one of Africa’s few mega-cities. Lagos, like many cities in LICs is a city that faces many challenges and those challenges are large because of its immense size and rapid growth. Physical Geography also plays a role, as Lagos has been limited in where it can grow because it originally grew next to a lagoon with rivers and lake which limits its growth to the East. However there is also potential for huge growth, most of the GDP of Nigeria comes from the oil reserves however their technology is not up to proper standards yet. There also needs to be opportunities for better jobs such as marketing. By 2050 Nigeria will have twice the population it has today, more than half will live in cities, and about 60% of them will be under 25s this means there will be a large working population. 21 million today, but in 1950 it was less than 500,000 this is exponential growth.

Question 27

Why are slums growing?

Answer 27

The major problem in Lagos is the growth of squatter settlements also known as slums. These slums come with many issues for people including the lack of planned access to clean water and sanitation systems, poor health, lack of education, unemployment and the prospect of crime. 65 percent of the people living in Lagos are urban poor who live in slums. 8.5 percent of the near 21 million people living in Lagos live in poverty - about 1.7 million people. Rural to urban migration - those moving often have limited funds due to low paying jobs in farming (often subsistence) which means many come from poverty. They therefore cannot afford. They therefore cannot afford to move into high priced formal accommodation and thus move into the much cheaper slums. These then grow to meet the growing demand from the rural to urban migration stream.

When people arrive they may feel they will make huge sums quickly but often the job market is oversaturated meaning people end up living in the slums longer than anticipated meaning the population grows rather than being transient. Huge undersupply of accommodation, the government cannot keep up so there is not enough formal accommodation for people to move into so they can build informal, unregulated settlements which develop the slums. Also this lack of supply drives up rents and housing prices making it even more difficult.

Question 28

What are the social, environmental and economic reasons for this growth? Include two facts to evidence your answer.

Answer 28

Social reason for growth is natural increase - in Lagos the fertility rate is 3.5, which is above replacement level which is 2.1 therefore there is significant growth just through natural increase.

Social - Influx of migrants which provides a strong workforce which enables companies to grow. It is also a fintech hub within Africa so not only does this encourage start ups but also it encourages major companies to invest and locate in Lagos which provides more jobs.

Environmental - placed next to huge oil reserves in the Niger delta which makes it a natural trading hub for Nigeria’s largest export, Also as Lagos is on the coast it is a port city and the dominant port city in all of Nigeria - this concentrates trade here providing lots of job opportunities

Question 29

How might issues in northern Nigeria be holding up development and leading to cities seeing an influx of people?

Answer 29

How might issues in northern Nigeria be holding up development and leading to cities seeing an influx of people? Rapid urbanisation, in particular the growth of Lagos and the associated problems of unemployment, poverty, inadequate health, poor sanitation, urban slums and environmental degradation pose formidable challenges. Arid climates in the north forces migration to other cities (including Lagos) - as desertification increases this means many can barely farm, pushing them into poverty - lack of job opportunities and poverty means this migration puts a heavy strain on southern regions in terms of services.

With desertification and poor soils it means the region does not provide significant exports to help Nigeria’s economy grow.

BokoHaram - displacement of people leads to instability and potentially reliance on aid and charities for support.

Their attitude towards education means that few people move through into secondary or tertiary education to develop high skills so they are reducing the potential skills base for Nigeria to work off.
Also girls in particular are stopped from attending school which not only leads to greater gender inequality, maintains a high fertility rate but also means 50% of the future population are not skilled and potentially not literate.
Conflicts cost the government huge amounts.

Question 30

Explain the characteristics of an urban landscape linking to these points:
- Population density
- Range and proximity of services
- Transport connectivity
- Height of buildings and building density
- Amount of green space

Answer 30

Population density: High, concentrated throughout most of the city

Range and proximity of services: Services will be in close proximity and there will be an abundance of them.

Transport connectivity: Transport is easy to access such as tubes, buses and other public transport. Also roads for cars

Height of buildings and building density: Buildings are very close together and may be skyscrapers

Amount of green space: not much green space, with the occasional garden here and there

Question 31

Explain the characteristics of a rural landscape linking to these points:
- Population density
- Range and proximity of services
- Transport connectivity
- Height of buildings and building density
- Amount of green space

Answer 31

Population density: Lower, more concentrated in certain areas such as underneath mountains but overall sparsely populated.

Range and proximity of services: Overall fewer. Maybe a couple of services nearby in villages however probably not that many

Transport connectivity: Transport is more difficult as it is likely that there are not many tube or bus stations nearby, however there may be some roads around a village

Height of buildings and building density: Buildings are more sparse and may be smaller. Skyscrapers are most likely not present

Amount of green space: Green space all around, big fields and gardens.

Question 32

What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in the suburbs such as Hampstead suburbs and what type of people might live there?

Answer 32

Advantages: Still a lot of services, lots of public transport links to the main city. More green area, less pollution, slightly cheaper. Access to schools. More space and closer-knit communities

Disadvantages: Still quite expensive, although cheaper than living in the city. In the suburbs, travelling to work or to the store can take a lot more time than if you lived in the city. Another con of suburban life is that it can often be boring to some. There isn’t as much going on as there is in the city, and you might run out of things to do for fun.

Who might live there: Working population, children, more elderly population.

Question 33

What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in a rural village (commuter) and what type of people might live there?

Answer 33

Advantages: More affordable housing also include less noise, more greenery, lower air pollution levels, lower crime rates, generally quieter locations,

Disadvantages: Becoming more expensive thanks to remote working.
Limited resources, like health care and access to food.
Limited job opportunities, limited public transport. A lot of commuters go to town which leads there to not be many people there in the daytime because everyone goes to the city.

Who might live there: Elderly, working population who commute to city

Question 34

What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in a remote rural village (closest town over an hour away) and what type of people might live there?

Answer 34

Advantages: A lot of privacy, no pollution, very cheap, not much demand in houses, population density is low

Disadvantages: Lack of access to quality health care. Health worker shortages are more than twice as high in rural areas than urban ones worldwide.
Lack of employment opportunities.
Lack of water, sanitation, and other infrastructure.
Lack of internet access.
Lack of transport.

Who might live there: Elderly