Week 1 Flashcards
(88 cards)
1
Q
Fundamental questions
A
aimed at increading knowledge (they don’t have a direct social benefit)
2
Q
Applied questions
A
Increasing knowledge about a clinical picture, improving diagnostic or improving treatment
3
Q
ratio score
A
Calculated to determine how the more complex condition relates to the simple condition ( is there a disproportionate amount of delay between the simple and complex condition?)
4
Q
Outcome measures can be classified at different levels such as:
A
- functions (measure that will give information about which functions are impaired)
- activities (measure that will give information about what activities they can/can’t perform)
- participation (measure that will give information about how much the patient can participate independently in society/traffic/specific activities) based on the researcg question
5
Q
What are the advantages that outcome measurement usually take place in a laboratory or online?
A
- test subject doesn’t have to travel
- reaches more people
- data can be collected in many circumstances
- more measurement points can be included
- higher reliability of data
6
Q
what are disadvantages that outcome measurement usually take place in a laboratory or online?
A
- no control and overview over circumstances (difficult to know if people perform to their best)
- sometimes people with cognitive impairments can’t do tests independently
- not everyone has a computer/knows how to use one
7
Q
descriptive/observational research
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observing a population or participants. No manipulation of variables
8
Q
correlational
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Investigates relationships between factors. No manipulated variables
9
Q
Experimental
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An independent variable is manipulated to measure differences in the dependent variable
10
Q
quasi-experimental
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experimental study, but in the field, not in the laboratory
11
Q
Intention-to-treat analysis
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groups are analyzed as they were assigned in the start. (this is difficult if too many people dropped out)
12
Q
What must be applied to determine if there really was reliable change in the individual?
A
statistical methods (e.g., the reliable change index)
13
Q
what design can be used to investigate the specificity of interventions?
A
Cross-over design.
Test participants are first trained on a certain function and then on another function
14
Q
What are the limitations of cross-over design
A
- only suitable for conditions that are stable
- there are at least two treatments phases, which means that the duration of the study is longer and statistical analyses are more complex
15
Q
What is accounted for with multiple baseline interventions and what not?
A
- spontaneous recovery yes
- placebo and retest effects; not
(No control group is needed here)
16
Q
cross-sectional studies
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Measurements are made at one point in time.
Study of people of different ages or people who are at different times in the disease progression without any test retest effects. (Correlational)
17
Q
Case control study
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a group of people with a certain condition is compared with a froup of controls.
- little time to perform
- rare disorders can be studied
- descriptive
18
Q
Case studies
A
one person or several persons are thoroughly studied.
- helps performing hypotheses that are generalizable
19
Q
What does single and double dissociation refers to in neuropsychology?
A
dissociation refers to a selective loss in cognitive functioning
single: a patient who fails on task II (writing) but not on task I (reading)
- this doesn’t prove specificity because the difference can also be because of a difference in test difficulty
Double: Patient may have impairments on task I (reading) but not on task II (writing), while the reverse pattern is present in patient II.
Single dissociation is like one tool not working.
Double dissociation is like seeing two people with opposite broken tools, proving those tools are really separate
20
Q
In psychology it depends on the …. which degree of heterogeneity is desired
A
Research question
21
Q
With what can the PICO method help?
A
find the targeted scientific literature by providing guidelines
- population, intervention, control, outcome (PICO)
22
Q
The clinical neutropsychologist is…
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a scientist practitioner who investigates why one person develops a disorder while another does not, and how recovery can be facilitated
23
Q
What was the first imaging technique
A
Computed tomography
24
Q
There are two types of neuroimaging, are they complementary?
A
Yes
25
What are the two types of neuroimaging?
structural: They investigate the anatomy of the brain (CT; MRI)
Functional: they depict underlying processes such as the movement of water or blood flow (PET, SPECT, EEG, MEG)
26
What are temporal resolution and spatial resolution needed for?
A high spatial resolution is needed to study a specific area in the brain
A high temporal resolution is needed for studying fast brain processes
27
Structural techniques generally have a high...
spatial resolution
- used to show the structure of the brain in vivo (while it is still in a living person)
28
Computed tomography (CT)
* Uses X-rays
* Relatively high resolution
* Able to produce different ‘slices’ of the brain in several angles (e.g., sagittal, transverse or
coronal).
* Able to identify abnormalities in the brain (athrophy) (e.g., haemorrhage, lesion or tumour).
* Pro: faster than MRI scan. Quick indication if surgery is needed. Not sensitive to movements.
* Cons: can; t discern between different types of brain tissue.
Exposure to radiation can damage DNA (cancer risk) Harmful for unborn babies, small dose of radiation, potential reaction to the use of dyes.
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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
* Uses a magnetic field en radio waves.
* High resolution
* Clearer images of soft tissue compared to CT: MRI is able to distinguishes between grey and
white matter.
* Able to identify abnormalities in the brain (e.g., haemorrhage, lesion or tumor).
* Pro: No harmful effect of X-rays
* Cons: can’t be used with people who have heavy metals in there body (e.g. pacemaker), are
very obese or claustrophobic. Very loud noise can cause hearing issues. More expansive and
takes more time than CT scan.
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How do you see diseases in the brain on the CT
most diseases in the brain lead to an increased water content of the brain tissue
- this tissue is hypodense (darker) compaired to normal brain tissue
- Blood and calcium are hyperdense (white)
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CTP
CTP is a more advanced technique, it also uses contrast agents, it helps to visualize and quantify blood flow in the brain.
32
There are two forms of relaxation
T1 relaxation
T2 relaxation
T1 Relaxation: Time it takes for hydrogen atoms to realign with the magnetic field (energy recovery).
→ Fat = short T1, Water = long T1
T2 Relaxation: Time it takes for hydrogen atoms to lose sync with each other (signal decay).
→ Water = long T2, Fat = short T2
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T2 weighted images are mainly used ....
to detect brain abnormalities. (because cerebral patholgy often accompanied by an increase in the water content in the brain tissue)
34
What does FLAIR show in dementia diagnosis?
FLAIR shows brain changes like swelling, scarring, or fluid buildup.
Used to assess:
Global cortical atrophy (shrinkage of the brain's surface)
White matter damage (using Fazekas scale for vascular dementia)
35
What does T1-weighted imaging show in dementia diagnosis?
T1 shows detailed structure of the brain.
Used to assess:
Medial temporal lobe atrophy (especially the hippocampus)
Parietal atrophy (using Koedam scale)
36
What is the Fazekas scale used for?
To rate white matter damage seen on FLAIR/T2 images.
High score = vascular dementia is more likely.
37
What is the Koedam scale used for?
To rate parietal atrophy.
High score = Alzheimer’s disease likely.
38
What is used to assess medial temporal lobe atrophy?
T1-weighted images.
Look at:
Shrinking hippocampus
More CSF (fluid) around it
High score = Alzheimer’s disease
39
What is used to assess global cortical atrophy?
FLAIR images.
Look at:
Wider gaps between brain folds (sulci)
Smaller gyri
High score = general brain shrinkage (seen in many dementias)
40
What are neuro-myths?
A misconception generated by a misunderstanding, a misreading, or a misquoting of facts that
are scientifically established (by brain research) to make a case for the use of brain research in
education or other contexts. Neuro-myths often originate from over-generalizations of empirical
research. Even teachers and individuals with a background of in neuropsychology believe in some
neuro-myths.
41
What is the subtraction method in cognitive psychology?
A method to find the time needed for a specific mental process by subtracting reaction times of two tasks that differ by only one cognitive step.
42
What is mental chronometry?
The study of the time taken by the brain to carry out mental tasks, often measured through reaction times (RT).
43
What is the reaction time (RT) paradigm?
A research method that uses reaction times to evaluate and study underlying cognitive processes.
44
What are "pure insertions" in the subtraction method?
The idea that a new cognitive process can be added to a task without affecting the duration of existing processes. Assumed in the subtraction method.
45
What is the fallacy of pure insertion?
The incorrect assumption that mental processes do not interact with each other when inserted into a task. This is a major criticism of the subtraction method.
46
What are examples of RT tasks used in cognitive research?
- Simple RT task: Respond to any stimulus
- Go/No-Go RT task: Respond only to specific stimuli
- Discrimination/Choice RT task: Choose a specific response based on the stimulus
47
How is the subtraction method used in brain imaging research?
By comparing two brain scans (e.g., task vs. baseline) to identify areas specifically active during the added cognitive process.
48
What is the purpose of using dissociation in cognitive neuroscience?
To identify the neural substrate of specific brain functions or to localize those functions using case studies, neuroimaging, or neuropsychological testing.
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What does dissociation relate to in brain function?
A selective loss of a particular cognitive function.
50
What does double dissociation support in brain organization?
It supports the idea of parallel organization, where different cognitive processes rely on separate brain regions or mechanisms.
51
Why isn’t double dissociation always proof of independent brain modules?
Because neural network models (which don’t use strict modularity) can also show double dissociation patterns. So it's not definitive proof of separate modules.
52
What two rules must be followed to claim a valid dissociation?
- A patient's score on at least one task must be significantly different from the normative group
- he difference between Task A and Task B performances must also be statistically significant
53
Functional MRI (fMRI)
* Register moments of activity of the magnetic protons in the body.
* Increased activity in a certain area in the brain is associated with increased blood supply in these
brain areas.
* Measures ratio between oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor hemoglobin = Blood Oxygenation Level
Dependent response (BOLD)
54
Electroencephalography (EEG)
* High temporal resolution
* Measures the electrical activity generated in the brain cells.
* Event related potentials (ERPs): the measured brain response that is the direct result of a
specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event.
* ERPs can be divided into two categories: early waves (‘sensory’ or ‘exogenous’) later waves
(‘cognitive’ or ‘endogenous’)
55
What is phrenology?
The study of skull shape and size to infer character and mental abilities. Now discredited.
56
What is spiritus animalis?
Ancient belief that humans had 3 types of "souls":
1. For survival (food),
2. For interaction with the environment,
3. A higher-order soul for moral reasoning.
57
What is physiognomy?
The interpretation of personality or traits based on facial features.
58
What is associationism?
The theory that all knowledge is learned through associations; nothing is innate.
59
Why was neuroscience hard to conceptualize before the 19th century?
People lacked a clear framework. Though brain structure was better understood, how thought and cognition worked was still controversial and hard to test.
60
What influenced early discussions of the mind and brain?
The Church and political ideologies heavily influenced scientific discourse.
61
What did the early "cell theory" of the brain propose?
That the ventricles (brain cavities) were the site of the mind, with three parts:
Sensus communis – received sensory input
Second cell – interpreted images
Memoria – stored information
62
What was a key flaw in the early cell theory?
It didn’t account for individual differences; differences were attributed only to personality or character.
63
What two substances did Descartes believe people were made of?
Body – material (res extensa)
Mind – non-material (res cogitans)
64
Where did Descartes believe the mind was located?
In a cavity in the center of the brain (likely referring to the pineal gland).
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How did Descartes describe communication between body and mind?
Through nerves receiving information and memories sent back via brain tissue.
66
What did Gall correctly believe about the brain?
The cortex is crucial
Specific functions are localized in the brain
67
What did Gall call his system of brain function localization?
Organology or Craniology (commonly known as phrenology)
68
What were Gall’s main beliefs about brain function?
All functions are innate
Each function has its own brain area
The cortex (not deep inside) contains these areas
Skull bumps reflect larger organs for specific functions
69
How did Gall believe we could identify abilities in people?
By feeling for skull bumps that indicate enlarged areas in the cortex related to specific abilities.
70
What is the clinical-anatomical method?
Linking cognitive impairments from brain injury with lesion locations observed after death.
71
How did Broca discover Broca’s area?
After Patient Tan’s death, Broca located a lesion in the left frontal lobe tied to speech production.
72
What important idea did Broca introduce about brain function?
That the left side of the brain is responsible for language — even though both sides appear symmetrical.
73
What did Wernicke contribute to language theory?
He expanded the idea by describing separate areas for language comprehension, leading to the concept of modular language functions.
74
What were localisationists mockingly called?
Diagram makers" — a term used to criticize their rigid, map-like view of brain function.
75
What is Seelenblindheit?
"Blindness of the mind" – when visual processing is intact, but the understanding of what is seen is impaired due to brain damage.
What is Apperceptive Seelenblindheit?
- A type of mind blindness where the internal description of the outside world is impoverished — you lose the mental concept of what you see.
76
What is Associative Seelenblindheit?
You see and describe the object, but can’t connect it to stored knowledge or past experiences. A failure in association.
77
What were Freud’s key criticisms of early brain localization theories?
The one-to-one link between brain region and behavior isn't realistic.
Psychological theory was underdeveloped, limiting progress in neuroscience.
We need better psychological models before truly understanding brain function.
78
How did views on brain function shift in the early 20th century?
Strict localization lost momentum.
Holism emerged: the brain works as an integrated whole.
Pierre Marie: aphasia is a single disorder.
Kurt Goldstein: proposed a holistic model of adaptation and “self-actualization” after injury.
79
How did the World Wars push neuropsychology forward?
Provided many patients with localized injuries for study.
Boosted the use of test psychology to assess recruits.
Led to development of intelligence tests (e.g., Yerkes’ Army Alpha & Beta tests).
Aleksandr Luria developed a model of the brain with interacting subsystems.
80
Describe Luria’s model of brain organization.
he brain is flexible, adaptive, and shows plasticity after injury.
It has 3 functional units:
- Subcortical unit – alertness & attention
- Posterior unit – info processing
- Anterior unit – behavior
Each unit has 3 levels:
- Primary zone: sensory input
- Secondary zone: interpretation/motor prep
- Tertiary zone: multimodal integration & self-evaluation
81
What are the characteristics of a Fodor-style cognitive module?
Innate
Domain-specific
Autonomous
Neurally independent (does not share processes with other modules)
82
How did neurology and psychology diverge in their focus on brain injury?
Neurology: Focused on causes (etiology) and acute treatment of brain damage.
Psychology: Focused on chronic effects like mental processing changes.
Led to test development (experimental psych) and theoretical modeling (cognitive neuropsychology).
83
What was Karl Lashley’s “equipotentiality” theory?
Studied patients with gunshot wounds.
Concluded that the amount of brain damage, not the location, determines performance.
Proposed “mass action” – the brain works as a whole, not in isolated areas.
84
What is Norman Geschwind’s concept of “disconnection”?
Certain symptoms (e.g., optic aphasia) result from disconnections between systems (e.g., vision and language).
Split-brain research showed left and right hemispheres can operate as separate conscious agents.
Supported theories of lateralization (one hemisphere dominating certain functions).
85
How did split-brain studies inform us about consciousness and hemispheric roles?
Patients could detect and respond to visual stimuli without verbalizing them.
Shows that both hemispheres perceive and process info, but only the left can usually verbalize it.
Split-brain patients sometimes act as if they have two minds.
86
What was the “Detection and Localization of Dot Test” in split-brain research?
Used controlled eye-gaze and had 3 response types: verbal, right hand, left hand.
Result: Patients could detect the dot correctly regardless of response type.
Shows they saw the stimulus, even when unable to verbalize seeing it.
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What misunderstandings arose in interpreting split-brain data?
Lashley wrongly assumed poor performance meant a specific function was damaged.
Sperry & Gazzaniga thought “I didn’t see anything” meant no perception occurred.
In reality, patients can detect and identify stimuli (especially in forced-choice tests), even if they can't consciously describe them.
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