Week 1 - Levels of Physiology (Part 1) Flashcards
(172 cards)
1
Q
Definition of “Tissues”
A
A group of cells that have similar function
2
Q
9x Typical Cell Structures (Lecture Focus)
A
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Peroxisomes
Lysosomes
3
Q
How many cells are in the human body?
A
75 - 100 TRILLION Cells
4
Q
Apoptosis
A
Programmed cell death (supposed to happen)
5
Q
2x Examples of Apoptosis
A
EX1: Embryologic fetal development. Some cell lineages are programmed to die off (i.e. original webbed fingers and toes)
EX2: T-Lymphocytes during fetal development. They will die off so they do not attack your own body cells later in life (creates an autoimmune disease)
6
Q
Rapid Apoptosis
A
Cells die too quickly
(not supposed to happen)
EX: Dementia & Alzheimer (brain cells die quickly)
7
Q
Slow Apoptosis
A
Cells die too slowly
Allows cells that were supposed to die to now survive & proliferate
(not supposed to happen)
EX: Tumors in Cancers
8
Q
Cell Necrosis
A
Occurs from injury, chronic inflammation, or ischemia to the cell
(NOT NORMAL!)
9
Q
Center of the Cell
A
Nucleus
10
Q
Vast majority of the cells in the body are called what?
A
Mononuclear Cells (1x nucleus)
11
Q
Cells with more than one nucleus
A
Multinuclear Cells
EX: Skeletal muscle fibers
EX2: Osteoclasts
12
Q
Cells that have NO nucleus (Anuclear)
A
Mature Red Blood Cells
13
Q
Cytoplasm
A
Space in between the nuclear membrane and the cell membrane
Various organelles are distributed
14
Q
Protoplasm
A
Describes the 5x basic substances that compose cells
15
Q
What are the 5x basic substances that compose cells and their percentages in the body?
A
Water: 70-85%
Intracellular Electrolytes: no%
Proteins: 10-20%
Lipids: 2-95%
Carbohydrates: no%
16
Q
Protoplasm - Water
A
Very good medium for substances to be dissolved or suspended in & for chemical reactions
17
Q
Intracellular Electrolytes - Cations
A
Potassium (most abundant)
Magnesium
Calcium
Sodium
18
Q
Intracellular Electrolytes - Anions
A
Phosphate - INORGANIC (most abundant)
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Sulfate
19
Q
Difference between Inorganic & Organic Phosphate
A
Inorganic Phosphate - found in cells as an electrolyte
Organic Phosphate - found in cell structures (i.e. phospholipid membrane)
20
Q
Protoplasm - Structural Proteins
A
Provides structure and support for the cell (i.e. cytoskeleton)
21
Q
Protoplasm - Globular Proteins
A
Enzymes that catalyze a chemical reaction
22
Q
Protoplasm - Phospholipids
A
Lipids that create the cell membrane and the membrane around various organelles
23
Q
Protoplasm - Cholesterol
A
Very important component of the cell membrane!
Provides structure, support, and integrity to the cell membrane
24
Q
Protoplasm - Triglycerides
A
Major energy source for many cells throughout the body
25
Carbohydrates - Glucose
Simple sugar (monosaccharide)
Very important energy source for all cells in the body
Cells use this first before using other nutrients
26
Carbohydrates - Glycogen
Storage form of glucose
27
2x Cell Types that are very good at storing Glycogen
Liver (Hepatocytes)
Skeletal Muscles
28
Cell Membrane
Forms the outer border of the cell
Separates the intracellular from the extracellular compartment
Other Name: Plasma Membrane
29
What layer name is the Cell Membrane described as?
Phospholipid Bilayers
(2x layers)
30
2x Regions of a Phospholipid
Polar Region (Hydrophilic)
Nonpolar Region (Hydrophobic)
31
What component does the Polar Region contain?
Phosphate
32
What component does the Nonpolar Region contain?
Fatty Acids
33
Polar Region (Hydrophilic) points ________ watery environments
Toward
34
Nonpolar Region (Hydrophobic) points ________ from watery environments
Away
35
What do Intrinsic Proteins do?
Completely traverses the cell membrane
Used at receptors, cell markers, and membrane channels
Other Name: Integral Proteins
36
What do Peripheral Proteins do?
Enzymes that carry out messages
Inserted partially into the cell membrane
Attached to and regulate intrinsic proteins
37
Cytoskeletons are comprised of what type of proteins?
Structural proteins
38
Peripheral proteins are comprised of what type of proteins? (hint: peripheral proteins is NOT the answer)
Globular proteins
39
What is a carbohydrate chain and protein combination called?
Glycoprotein
40
What is a carbohydrate chain and fatty acetyl (lipid molecule) combination called?
Glycolipid
41
What is a Glycoprotein and Glycolipid combination called?
Glycocalyx
42
Glycocalyx
Forms the outer structural support for the cell
Point of attachment between cells (glycocalyx to glycocalyx attachment)
43
4x Examples of Intrinsic Proteins
Protein Channels
Transport Proteins
Cell Membrane-Bound Receptors
Cell Markers
44
Example Pathway of a Cell-Membrane Bound Receptor
Chemical Signal --> Receptor Site --> Receptor Protein
45
True or False: The chemical signal has to match the receptor site on the receptor protein in order to bind and bring about a change within the cell.
True
46
Purpose of a Cell Marker (Glycoprotein or Glycolipid)
Allows the immune system to differentiate a cell from non-cell (i.e. white blood cell vs. foreign microorganisms)
47
When can the purpose of a cell marker become a problem?
Organ tissue transplants
EX: Kidney transplant from another person is placed into a patient. The patient's immune system identifies the kidney transplant as a foreign organism. The patient's immune system attacks the kidney transplant. This is why we need immunosuppressive drugs.
48
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Nucleus
Nuclear Membrane
Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus
*All play a role in protein synthesis*
49
Nucleus
DNA is found here
Surrounded by a phospholipid membrane
50
What is in the center of a nucleus?
Nucleolus
51
The nucleolus is comprised of what?
Chromatin (DNA and proteins)
52
Endoplasmic Reticulum
An extension of the nuclear membranes
Divided into the rough and smooth sides
53
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Has ribosomes attached to it (sites of protein synthesis)
54
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
NO RIBOSOMES! (which is why it's smooth)
55
Golgi Apparatus
Phospholipid membranes that form vesicles that stack on top of each other
56
Formation Process of Ribosomes
1) Ribosomal proteins from the cytoplasm enter through nuclear pores
2) Ribosomal proteins then accumulate in the nucleolus
3) Ribosomal proteins join together to form small and large ribosomal sub-units in the nucleolus
4) rRNA is incorporated into the ribosomal small and large sub-units
5) Small and large ribosomal sub-units move out through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm
6) Small and large ribosomal sub-units join together to form the complete ribosome
*PowerPoint Slide 27 - Levels of Physiology*
57
What are the 2x places that you can find Ribosomes?
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoplasm (free ribosomes)
58
What is the function of Ribosomes?
Synthesizes proteins
59
What does rRNA do?
Directs the overall process of the ribosome synthesizes a protein
(does NOT carry the code! just directs the process)
60
What is the full name of rRNA?
Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid
61
Large Ribosomal Subunit # Lab Designation
60S
62
Small Ribosomal Subunit # Lab Designation
40S
63
Complete Ribosome # Lab Designation
80S
64
Why are these lab designation #'s important?
To help differentiate between the human ribosomal sub-units from bacterial microorganism sub-units.
Many (not all) antibiotics are formulated to be directed at bacterial ribosomal sub-units to prevent them from synthesizing proteins.
If the bacteria can't synthesize proteins, the bacteria dies.
65
Ribosomal Protein Synthesis Process
1) Each strand of DNA carries the code to synthesize a specific protein
2) DNA strand is too large to move through nuclear pores (confined to nucleus)
3) DNA transcribes the code onto an mRNA strand (smaller size)
4) mRNA strand can move out through the nuclear pore into the cytoplasm
5) mRNA strand combines with the Complete Ribosome
6) tRNA comes from the nucleus and is comprised of an amino acid binding site end and a triplet of binding sites end
7) An amino acid binds to the tRNA
8) tRNA triplet binding side end then binds to the mRNA strand at a specific point
9) Adjacent amino acids from the tRNA amino acid binding site attach together to form a complete protein
66
What is the full name of DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
67
What is a protein made of?
Amino Acids
68
What is the full name of tRNA?
Transfer Ribonucleic Acid
69
What is the full name of mRNA?
Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
70
How are amino acids held together?
By peptide bonds
71
How many amino acids do we need to classify as a protein?
100
72
What is an amino acid chain that is less than 100 amino acids?
Polypeptide Chain
73
What is the process of Translation?
A process in the cytoplasm where a message on the mRNA strand is translated into an amino acid sequence
74
What does mRNA do?
Carries the code for synthesis of a specific protein
75
What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?
To further process a protein
76
What are the 3x different fates of a vesicle that breaks off of the Golgi Apparatus?
1) Stays within the cell and used by the cell (i.e. lysosomes)
2) Incorporated into the cell membrane (i.e. cell marker, membrane bound receptors)
3) Contents within the vesicle are extruded from the cell -- exocytosis or secretion (i.e. hormones from endocrine cells, neurons that release neurotransmitters)
77
Cells whose primary role is Exocytosis tend to have a very prominent _________ on the side of the cell where the substance is secreted from.
Golgi Apparatus
78
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Functions (5x)
1) Synthesis of glycogen (glycogenesis)
2) Glycogenolysis
3) Some steps in gluconeogenesis
4) Synthesis of lipids (phospholipids & cholesterol)
5) Detoxification of drugs and other toxins
79
What is the process of a vesicle?
1) mRNA and Complete Ribosome attach to the Endoplasmic Reticulum and create a specific protein inside the cisterna
2) Vesicle with the protein strand is formed in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
3) Vesicle breaks off of the Endoplasmic Reticulum and moves to the Golgi Apparatus
4) Vesicle attaches to the Golgi Apparatus and travels throughout the organelle for proteins to be further processed
5) Vesicle breaks off of the Golgi Apparatus and serves one of the 3x functions
80
What are Lysosomes filled with?
Highly concentrated hydrolytic enzymes (uses water to break substances down into their smaller component parts --> protein into amino acids)
81
How is a bacteria phagocytosed?
1) Extracellular bacteria comes into contact with the cell membrane
2) Cell membrane invaginates the bacteria and takes it into the cell
3) A vesicle is formed around the bacteria
4) A fresh lysosome is broken off from the Golgi Apparatus
5) Lysosome comes into contact and fuses with the bacterial vesicle
6) Hydrolytic enzymes are released into the bacterial vesicle
7) Hydrolytic enzymes break down and inactivate the bacteria
82
Which 2x types of cells would have a lot of highly active lysosomes?
Macrophages and Neutrophils
(cells whose primary role is phagocytosis)
83
What is H2O2?
Hydrogen Peroxide
84
What are Peroxisomes?
Contains enzymes (oxidases) that combine oxygen with hydrogen to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
85
What does Hydrogen Peroxide do?
Oxidizes substances that might be poisonous to the cell (inactivates many potential cell toxins)
86
State a real-life example of how Peroxisomes detoxify.
About 50% of the alcohol a person drinks is detoxified by the peroxisomes of the liver cells
87
What type of species does Hydrogen Peroxide fall into?
Reactive Oxygen Species
88
What are the other 2x names for Reactive Oxygen Species?
1) Toxic Oxygen Radicals
2) Free Radicals
89
Name the 5x Reactive Oxygen Species stated in the lecture and their abbreviations (if applicable)
1) Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
2) Superoxide (O2-)
3) Hydroxyl Radicals (OH)
4) Hypochlorous Acid
5) Nitric Oxide (NO)
90
Under what physiologic conditions are free radicals formed?
When there are a lot of free electrons and free fresh oxygen
91
What is Hypochlorous Acid similar to?
Household Bleach
92
Name a clinical scenario where there's lots of electrons and fresh oxygen.
When tissue has been ischemic for a period of time
93
State 2x clinical examples of when there's lots of electrons and fresh oxygen.
EX) Cardiac Arrest
(Vessel is stented open and fresh oxygen is delivered to the myocardium --> formation of free radicals)
EX2) Tissue Organ Transplants
(Organ has been out of the donor for a period of time, called ischemic time. During ischemic time, lots of electrons have accumulated --> formation of free radical. Organ is placed into the recipient. Vascular anastomoses is made and organ is suddenly perfused with fresh oxygen. This makes it hard to differentiate between a rejected organ transplant or free radical injury)
94
Name 4x Toxic Oxygen Scavengers/Antioxidants
1) Vitamin E
2) Vitamin C
3) Beta Carotene
4) Flavonoids (dark chocolate, berries, red wine, green and black tea)
95
What is Beta Carotene the precursor to?
Vitamin A (not an antioxidant)
96
What does the Mitochondria do?
Synthesizes ATP
97
What is the full name of ATP?
Adenosine Triphosphate
98
The number and size of the mitochondria in a cell depends on what?
The workload of the cell
99
True or False: The number and size of mitochondria in a cell does not change overtime.
False
--> DOES change overtime based on the workload of the cell
100
Why is the inner phospholipid membrane of a mitochondrion layered in folds?
Increases the surface area
101
Name 2x components that are on the Inner Phospholipid Membrane
Enzymes and Transport Proteins
102
What is the sole purpose of Mitochondrial DNA?
To duplicate mitochondria
(also more simple than DNA in the nucleus)
103
What are the 3x molecular components of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)?
1x Adenine (Adenosine)
1x Ribose
3x Phosphate Groups
104
What is the molecular formula for Adenine?
C5 H5 N5
105
What is the molecular formula for Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)?
C10 H16 N5 O13 P3
106
What is the squiggly line that attaches phosphate groups? (~)
High energy phosphate bond
107
How many calories are released when the high energy phosphate bond is broken?
12,000 calories
108
What are the 3x molecular components of Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)?
1x Adenine (Adenosine)
1x Ribose
2x Phosphate Groups
109
What does ADP do?
Serves as the building block to ATP
Can give 1x high energy phosphate bond
110
What are the 3x molecular components of Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP)?
1x Adenine (Adenosine)
1x Ribose
1x Phosphate Group
111
When a high or low energy phosphate bond is broken, what does the cell do?
The cell uses the caloric energy from the broken bond to perform whatever work it needs to do
112
What does AMP do?
Serve as the building block for ADP and ATP
Can give 1x lower energy phosphate bond
113
How many calories are released from an AMP lower energy phosphate bond?
7,500 calories
114
What is the straight line that attaches to a phosphate group? (-)
Lower energy phosphate bond
(i.e. the 1st phosphate group to Ribose molecule)
115
What are the 2x molecular components of Adenosine?
1x Adenine (nitrogenous base)
1x Ribose (5-carbon sugar)
116
What happens when Adenosine binds with adenosine receptors in arterial smooth muscle?
Arterial smooth muscle RELAXES and Arteries dilate
117
What happens when Adenosine binds to adenosine receptors in smooth muscle veins?
Smooth muscle RELAXES and Veins dilate
118
What happens when Adenosine binds to adenosine receptors in the atrioventricular node?
Inhibits conduction from the atrium to the ventricles
119
What happens when Adenosine binds to adenosine receptors in the renal vasculature?
Causes renal vessel CONSTRICTION
120
What does Adenosine do to tissues and blood flow?
Adenosine leads to systemic arterial vasodilation to improve blood flow to the tissues
(increases supply of oxygen and nutrients)
121
If we replaced Adenine with Guanine in ATP, what is that nucleotide called?
Guanosine Triphosphate (GTP)
122
What is a calorie? (lower case "c")
Amount of heat energy required to raise 1 gram of water up 1C (14-15C)
123
What is a Calorie or kilocalorie?
1,000 calories
Amount of heat energy required to raise 1,000 grams (1kg) of water up 1C (14-15C)
124
How many high energy phosphate bonds does ATP have?
2
125
How many low energy phosphate bonds does ATP have?
1
126
How does a cell synthesize ATP from glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids? (14x Steps)
1) Person eats dark chocolate
2) Dark chocolate converts to glucose (C6 H12 O6) in the cell
3) Glucose enters the 12-step Glycolysis process
4) 2x ATP is used to start the Glycolysis process
5) 4x ATP are produced during Glycolysis
6) Net ATP yield during Glycolysis is 2x
7) Final outcome of Glycolysis is 2x Pyruvic Acid
8) Pyruvic Acid has two pathways -- Lactic Acid (oxygen deficit - anaerobic) OR Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle (oxygen sufficient - aerobic)
9) Lactic Acid pathway produces 2x ATP
10) Citric Acid Cycle produces 2x ATP and provides hydrogen atoms to the electron transport chain -- 34x ATP synthesized
11) Total in the Mitochondria = 36x ATP
12) Total Net Aerobic Yield = 38x ATP (+2 from Glycolysis --> see #6)
13) Total Gross Aerobic Yield = 40x ATP (+2 to start Glycolysis process --> see #4)
14) Total Anaerobic Yield = 2x ATP
127
What is another monosaccharide that has the same chemical formula as Glucose?
Fructose
(however, they have different organic structural formulas)
128
What do you call two substances that have the same chemical formula but different organic structural formulas?
Isomers
129
What do you call two substances that have the same chemical formula and mirror images of organic structural formulas?
Stereo Isomers
130
How much Gross ATP is created in the Aerobic pathway?
Gross Aerobic Yield = 40x ATP
(+2 to start Glycolysis process)
131
How much Net ATP is created in the Aerobic pathway?
Net Aerobic Yield = 38x ATP
(+2 from Glycolysis)
132
How much Total ATP is created in the Mitochondria?
Total in the Mitochondria = 36x ATP
133
How much Total ATP is created in the Anaerobic pathway?
Total Anaerobic Yield = 2x ATP
134
How is glucose trapped in the cell?
Phosphorylates by adding a high energy phosphate to the #6 carbon of glucose. Forms Glucose-6-Phosphate (G6P)
135
What is the full name of G6P?
Glucose-6-Phosphate
136
Where did the phosphate come from to form G6P?
From ATP
(one of the ways an ATP is used during Glycolysis)
137
What are the 2x pathways a G6P can take?
Glycolysis or Glycogenesis
138
What is Glycogenesis?
Glucose is converted into Glycogen
139
What is Glycogenolysis?
Glycogen is broken down into Glucose
140
What is Glycolysis?
Glucose is converted into (2x) Pyruvic Acid
141
What does 2x Pyruvic Acids convert to anaerobically?
2x Lactic Acids
142
What does 2x Pyruvic Acids convert to aerobically?
2x Acetyl CoEnzyme A
(Acetyl CoA)
143
How many turns of the Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle does 2x Acetyl CoA create?
2
(1x turn for each Acetyl CoA)
144
How much ATP does 1x Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle create?
1
145
How much ATP does 2x Citric Acid/Krebs Cycles create?
2
146
What is the by-product of Aerobic Metabolism? (remember the two end results of the Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
147
A drop in a patient's etCO2 means that they have entered the aerobic or anaerobic pathway?
Anaerobic Pathway
(CO2 is only produced in the Aerobic Pathway)
148
What does the Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle give to the Electron Transport System?
Hydrogen
149
What does the Electron Transport System produce?
34x ATP & Water (H2O)
150
What does the Citric Acid/Krebs Cycle produce?
2x ATP & Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
151
What is the by-product of the Electron Transport System? (remember the two end results of this specific process)
Water (H2O)
152
What does ATP Synthase do?
An enzyme that synthesizes ATP by converting ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) into ATP
153
For each (1x) molecule of Glucose, how much ATP is produced in Glycolysis?
4x ATP
154
Where does each of the 38x ATP in the Aerobic Pathway come from? (3x places)
2x from Glycolysis
2x from Krebs Cycle
34x from Electron Transport System
155
If the cell runs out of Glucose, where does it turn to for energy?
Fatty Acids (i.e. Triglycerides)
156
What process do Fatty Acids go through once they cross the cell membrane and enter the cytoplasm?
Beta Oxidation
157
What does Beta Oxidation do?
Converts the Fatty Acids into Acetyl CoA
(which then goes to the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport System)
158
What determines how much ATP is produced from Fatty Acids?
Length of the Fatty Acid
(the longer the hydrocarbon chain, the more Beta Oxidation, the more Acetyl CoA, the more ATP)
(the shorter the hydrocarbon chain, the less ATP)
159
Is it good or bad for the body to use Amino Acids for energy?
BAD!
(you want them to be used to produce proteins and enzymes)
160
What can Amino Acids be converted into? (3x)
Pyruvic Acid, Acetyl CoA, or a Ketoacid of the Krebs Cycle
161
What are the acids of the Krebs Cycle?
Ketoacids
162
Based on weight, which of the 3x substances provides the most ATP? Glucose, Amino Acids, or Fatty Acids?
Fatty Acids
163
How many calories per gram does Glucose, Amino Acids, and Fatty Acids yield?
Glucose = 4 calories
Amino Acids = 4 calories
Fatty Acids = 9 calories
164
What is the Cori Cycle?
A metabolic pathway that transports lactate from skeletal muscles to the liver, where it's converted back into glucose
Other Name: Lactic Acid Cycle
165
What is the enzyme responsible for converting Pyruvic Acid to Lactic Acid and Lactic Acid to Pyruvic Acid?
Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)
166
In the Liver, what is the by-product of Lactic Acid converting to Pyruvic Acid?
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
167
In the Liver, what can Pyruvic Acid convert into?
Glucose-6-Phosphate (G6P)
168
Why do most cells that trap glucose have an irreversible process?
The enzyme that phosphorylates the glucose is Hexokinase
169
In the Liver, what is the enzyme that phosphorylates glucose?
Glucokinase
(converts Glucose into G6P)
170
What is one way that the Liver helps to regulate glucose?
G6P can be de-phosphorylated into free Glucose, which can leave the liver and transport back to cells throughout the body
171
What is Phosphorylation?
The transfer of a phosphate group (PO3) from a donor to an acceptor
172
Why would you avoid giving Lactated Ringers to a patient with severe liver dysfunction?
Because they may have an impaired Cori Cycle (Lactic Acid Cycle). Can lead to an excess in blood lactate levels, which can lead to lactic acidosis
