Week 1 - Levels of Physiology (Part 2) Flashcards
(173 cards)
1
Q
What are the 2x situations that create excessive Acetyl-CoEnzyme A?
A
1) Beta Oxidation of Fatty Acids
2) Catabolism of Ketogenic Amino Acids
2
Q
What are the 3x Ketone Bodies?
A
1) Acetoacetic Acid
2) Beta-Hydroxybutyric Acid
3) Acetone
3
Q
When Acetyl-CoA accumulates faster than the Citric Acid Cycle can accommodate it, what is formed?
A
Ketone Bodies
4
Q
What is the state of the body called when you have excess ketone bodies?
A
Ketosis
5
Q
What is the state of the body called when excess ketone bodies decrease the pH of body fluids?
A
Ketoacidosis
6
Q
What is a clinical scenario that’s highly associated with ketoacidosis?
A
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)
7
Q
What is the process where ketone bodies can be used for fatty acid synthesis?
A
Lipogenesis
8
Q
True or False: Some cells can use ketone bodies as an energy source
A
True
9
Q
True or False: Cells cannot use ketone bodies as an energy source
A
False
(Some cells can use them as an energy source)
10
Q
What is a Hydrogen Atom comprised of?
A
1x Proton
1x Electron
(Electrically Neutral)
11
Q
What is a Hydrogen Ion called?
A
Cation
(Proton electrically charged, H+)
12
Q
When a substance loses an electron, it loses what?
A
Energy
(Loss of Electrons = Loss of Energy)
(Gains Electrons = Gains Energy)
13
Q
Where does the Electron Transport Chain occur?
A
In the Mitochondria
14
Q
How many transport proteins are in the mitochondrial inner membrane?
A
4
15
Q
What do the transport proteins in the mitochondrion do?
A
Serve as electron acceptors (energy)
16
Q
Which transport proteins in the mitochondrion are proton pumps?
A
1, 3, and 4
(can pump a hydrogen ion from the inner matrix to the outer matrix)
17
Q
What is the full name of NADH?
A
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) + Hydrogen (H)
18
Q
What is the full name of FADH2?
A
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
19
Q
What are NADH and FADH2 called?
A
Hydrogen Shuttles
(shuttle hydrogens from the Citric Acid Cycle to the Electron Transport Chain)
20
Q
The #1 transport protein gives electrons to which other transport protein?
A
3
21
Q
The #2 transport protein gives electrons to which other transport protein?
A
3
22
Q
The #3 transport protein gives electrons to which other transport protein?
A
4
23
Q
Inorganic Phosphate (Pi) and ADP create what?
A
ATP
24
Q
The #4 transport protein gives electrons to what process?
A
1) Leftover electrons are added to 2x Hydrogen Ions, which creates 2x Hydrogen Atoms (added electrons make hydrogen neutral)
2) 2x Hydrogen Atoms combine with 1/2 molecule of Oxygen (1/2 O2)
3) Synthesizes Water (H2O) as a by-product
25
What is the final electron acceptor?
Oxygen
(important for the #4 transport protein to always have to continue the process)
26
What is the by-product of the #4 transport protein?
Water (H2O)
27
If electrons are backed-up in the transport proteins, what happens?
Transport proteins cannot accept fresh electrons. The process backs-up to the anaerobic pathway where lactic acid is produced
28
Which area is responsible for the majority of ATP synthesis? Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, or the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain?
Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain
29
Extracellular Concentration of Na+
140 mEq/L
30
Extracellular Concentration of K+
4 mEq/L
31
Extracellular Concentration of Ca 2+
2.4 mEq/L
32
Extracellular Concentration of Mg 2+
1.2 mEq/L
33
Extracellular Concentration of Cl-
103 mEq/L
34
Extracellular Concentration of HPO4 2- (inorganic phosphate)
4 mEq/L
35
Extracellular Concentration of Glucose
90 mg/dL
36
Extracellular Concentration of pO2
35-40 mmHg
37
Extracellular Concentration of pCO2
40-45 mmHg
38
Extracellular Concentration of Amino Acids
30 mg/dL
39
Intracellular Concentration of Na+
14 mEq/L
40
Intracellular Concentration of K+
140 mEq/L
41
Intracellular Concentration of Ca 2+
0.0001 mEq/L
42
Intracellular Concentration of Mg 2+
58 mEq/L
43
Intracellular Concentration of Cl-
4 mEq/L
44
Intracellular Concentration of HPO4 2- (inorganic phosphate)
75 mEq/L
45
Intracellular Concentration of Glucose
0-20 mg/dL
46
Intracellular Concentration of pO2
~20 mmHg
47
Intracellular Concentration of pCO2
~45-50 mmHg
48
Intracellular Concentration of Amino Acids
200 mg/dL
49
What is the most abundant extracellular cation? (+)
Sodium (Na+)
50
What gradient movement do solutes move across the cell membrane?
From highest concentration to lowest concentration
High --> Low
51
Why is calcium concentration inside the cell so low?
Calcium can be lethal to cells
It can deposit itself into the mitochondria and inhibit ATP synthesis
52
What is the most abundant extracellular anion? (-)
Chloride (Cl-)
53
What is the most abundant intracellular anion? (-)
Inorganic Phosphate (HPO4 2-)
54
Why is the glucose content so low inside the cell?
Cells are using glucose for ATP synthesis or being stored as glycogen
55
Why is there a large amount of amino acids inside the cell?
Protein synthesis
56
What are the 2x different types of transport?
Passive and Active Transport
57
What is another name for passive transport?
Diffusion
58
During passive transport, is the substance being transported with or against its gradient?
WITH its gradient (high --> low)
59
Is energy needed or not needed in passive transport?
NOT needed
60
During active transport, is the substance being transported with or against its gradient?
AGAINST the gradient (low --> high)
61
Is energy needed or not needed in active transport?
Energy IS NEEDED
(energy is extracted from ATP to drive the transport process)
62
What substances can move directly through the phospholipid bilayer cell membrane? (Simple Diffusion)
Lipid/Fat Soluble Substances
63
What are the 4x lipid/fat soluble substances that can move directly through the phospholipid bilayer cell membrane? (Simple Diffusion)
1) Oxygen
2) Carbon Dioxide
3) Nitrogen
4) Alcohol
64
If a substance is water soluble, can it move through the phospholipid cell membrane?
No, water and fat don't mix
65
What is Simple Diffusion?
Passive transport where molecules move from high to low concentration across a membrane. Does not need energy or the assistance of transport proteins
(i.e. oxygen and carbon dioxide)
66
Which substances need a channel protein to move through the cell membrane?
Water soluble and electrically charged substances (cations and anions)
67
Protein channels are selectively permeable by what 3x components?
1) Size
(smaller than the channel)
2) Shape
(match the shape of the channel)
3) Electrical charge within the channel
(i.e. a channel that is negatively charged will help pull a positively charged substance, but will repel negatively charged substances)
68
What are the 2x very important types of protein leak channels?
Sodium and Potassium Leak Channels
69
What are Leak Channels?
They're always open
70
Which Leak Channel leaks more?
Potassium Leak Channel
(more potassium will go from inside to outside the cell, than sodium from outside to inside the cell)
71
What are Gated Channels?
Channels that can be alternately opened and closed
They allow diffusion only when the gate is open (i.e. ligand gated channels)
72
What opens the Gated Channels?
1) Chemicals
2) A change in the electrical current across the cell membrane
73
What is another word for Ligand Gated Channels?
Chemical Gated Channels
74
What is the process of a Ligand Gated Channel opening?
1) A chemical messenger binds to the receptor site
2) The channel opens for a specific solute (i.e. Na+, K+, Cl-) to move through
75
Name places where you can find the Acetylcholine Gated Sodium Channel
Neuromuscular Synapse
(sodium will move through this channel)
76
What is a specific example of a Ligand Gated Channel?
Acetylcholine Gated Sodium Channel
77
What are Voltage-Gated Channels?
Channels that open in response to changes in the electrical current across the cell membrane
78
Name 2x examples of Voltage-Gated Channels
1) FAST Voltage Gated Na+ Channels
2) SLOW Voltage Gated K+ Channels
79
What is the Membrane Potential of a cell?
The electrical difference across a cell membrane
Always compare the inside of the cell to the outside of the cell
80
What does it mean if the membrane potential is +20mV?
The inside of the cell membrane is 20mV MORE POSITIVE than the outside
81
What does it mean if the membrane potential is -90mV?
The inside of the cell membrane is 90mV MORE NEGATIVE than the outside
82
Why is it called a FAST Voltage Gated Channel?
It does not take much of a voltage change to open the channel
(i.e. -90 mV to -60 mV, which is only a 30 mV difference)
83
Why is it called a SLOW Voltage Gated Channel?
Take a much greater change in voltage to open
(i.e. -90 mV to +20 mV, which is a 110 mV difference)
84
What is another name for Facilitated Diffusion?
Carrier Mediated Diffusion
85
What is Facilitated Diffusion?
Passive Transport that uses a carrier protein (high --> low gradient)
86
What type of transporter is an example of Facilitated Diffusion?
Glucose Transporters
87
What can happen to the receptor proteins in Facilitated Diffusion?
The receptor proteins can become completely saturated, so they can't transport anymore substance (i.e. glucose).
There will be an accumulation of the substance in the extracellular compartment
88
What is the abbreviation for Glucose Transporters?
GLUT
89
Is Insulin a Glucose Transporter?
NO!!
In some cells, insulin regulates the number and activity of the glucose transporters. But they are NOT the actual glucose transporters!
90
What are the 2x types of insulin to transport glucose?
1) Insulin-Independent
(does NOT need insulin to help transport glucose)
2) Insulin-Dependent
(needs insulin to help transport glucose)
91
Name 5x Insulin-Independent types of cells
1) Neurons (brain and nervous system)
2) Hepatocytes
3) Proximal Tubules of Kidneys
4) Small Intestine
5) Exercising Skeletal Muscle Fibers
92
What are the Insulin-Dependent types of cells?
Almost all other cells besides the 5x independent types
93
What are the 9x factors that affect the rate of diffusion?
1) Area of membrane
2) Permeability of membrane to specific solutes
3) Thickness of membrane
4) Lipid solubility of membrane
5) Number of protein channels for specific solutes
6) Temperature
7) Molecular weight of substances that diffuse
8) For Facilitated Diffusion: Saturation of protein transporter
9) Gradients across membrane
94
The larger the area of membrane, the _____ the rate of diffusion
Faster
95
The more permeable the membrane, the _____ the rate of diffusion
Faster
96
The thicker the membrane, the _____ the rate of diffusion.
Slower
97
The more lipid soluble the membrane, the _____ the rate of diffusion.
Faster
98
The more protein channels for a specific solute, the _______ the rate of diffusion.
Faster
99
The higher the temperature (particles move more rapidly), the _______ the rate of diffusion.
Faster
100
The higher the molecular weight of a substance, the _______ the rate of diffusion.
Slower
101
The more saturated a protein transporter is (facilitated diffusion), the _______ the rate of diffusion.
Slower
(may actually stop diffusion)
102
The greater the gradient is, the _______ the rate of diffusion.
Faster
103
What are the 3x types of gradients that affect the rate of diffusion?
1) Concentration gradient
2) Electrical gradient
3) Pressure gradient
104
True or False: There can be a combination of two or more gradients affecting diffusion at the same time.
True
105
What is Osmosis?
Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high concentration of solutes (from an area of more water to less water)
106
Is Osmosis a faster or slower rate of movement than simple diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane?
Faster
107
What type of transport process is Osmosis?
Passive Transport
108
What is a Mole?
Avogadro's number of particles (i.e. atoms, ions, molecules)
109
What is Avogadro's number?
6.02 X 10^23
110
What is a Millimole?
1/1000 mole
111
What is an Osmole (osm)?
The number of particles in a solution
112
What does 1 osmole equal to?
1 osmole = 1 mole (Avogadro's number of particles) in 1 liter or 1 kg of water
113
What is a Milliosmole (mOsm)?
1/1000 osmole
114
What is Osmolality?
Moles of solute per KILOGRAM of water
115
What is Osmolarity?
Moles of solute per LITER of water
116
What is the chemical formula of Salt?
NaCl
117
What holds the sodium and chloride molecules together?
Ionic Bond
118
When sodium chloride is placed into water, what happens?
The ionic bond is broken. Sodium and chloride dissociate into separate molecules
119
What is the atomic weight of Na?
23
120
What does 1 mole of Na equal to? (gm)
23 gm
(Avogadro's number of atoms)
121
What is the atomic weight of Cl?
35.5
122
What does 1 mole of Cl equal to? (gm)
35.5 gm
(Avogadro's number of atoms)
123
What is the molecular weight of NaCl?
58.5
(atomic weights of Na & Cl)
124
What does 1 mole of NaCl equal to? (gm)
58.5 gm
(Avogadro's number of molecules)
125
When NaCl dissociates in water, it breaks down into ________ of Na+ and ______ of Cl-.
1 mole of Na+
1 mole of Cl-
126
1 mole (58.5 gm) of NaCl contributes to ______ to 1 liter or 1 kg of water.
2 osm
127
Does Glucose dissociate in water?
NO!
128
What is the chemical formula of Glucose?
C6 H12 O6
129
What is the atomic weight of Carbon?
12
130
What is the atomic weight of Hydrogen?
1
131
What is the atomic weight of Oxygen?
16
132
What is the molecular weight of Glucose?
180
C = 12 x 6 = 72
H = 1 x 12 = 12
O = 16 x 6 = 96
72 + 12 + 96 = 180
133
1 mole of Glucose is how many gm?
180 gm
(Avogadro's number of molecules)
134
1 mole (180 gm) of Glucose contributes ______ to 1 liter or 1 kg of water
1 osm
135
True or False: The size of the particles determines osmolality.
False
(The NUMBER of particles determines osmolality)
136
The point at which the hydrostatic pressure stops the movement of water by osmosis is called what?
Osmotic Pressure
137
What is Hydrostatic Pressure?
The pressure that a fluid exerts on the walls of its container
138
True or False: Some particles, regardless of size, make an equal contribution to osmolality/osmolarity
False
(EVERY PARTICLE, regardless of size, makes an equal contribution to osmolality/osmolarity)
139
Osmosis stops when what 2x things happen?
1) Osmotic Pressure stops the movement of water
2) Equilibrium of osmolality is reached in regards to osmolality
140
What is Colloid Osmotic Pressure?
The contribution of proteins to osmolality/osmolality of body fluids
141
What is another name for Colloid Osmotic Pressure?
Oncotic Pressure
142
What is the primary plasma protein that contributes to osmolality/osmolarity?
Albumin
143
Where is Albumin found?
Intravascular Compartment
144
Why do you NOT give albumin to a patient who is acutely septic with increased capillary permeability?
Further exacerbates third-spacing. Infused albumin leaks out through the capillaries into the interstitial compartment.
Must stop the inflammatory response first. THEN administer albumin.
145
What is Body Fluid Osmolality?
Plasma osmolality = Interstitial osmolality = Intracellular osmolality
146
How much Body Fluid Osmolality do we normally have?
About 300 mOsm/L
147
Body Fluid Osmolality must remain within _______ _________ __________ for physiologic homeostasis and normal cell function.
Very Narrow Ranges
148
What is Primary Active Transport?
Uses energy extracted from ATP directly
149
What is an example of a Primary Active Transport?
Primary Active Sodium/Potassium Pump
150
What does ATPase do?
It's an enzyme that cleaves an ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi). Calories are released for energy. The Primary Active Transporter holds onto this energy and uses it to drive the transport process
151
What does the Sodium/Potassium Pump move in and out?
IN = 2K+
OUT = 3Na+
152
What type of pump is the Primary Active Sodium/Potassium Pump called?
Electrogenic Pump
153
What 4x things does the Primary Active Sodium/Potassium Pump regulate?
1) Intracellular Sodium & Potassium concentration
2) Intracellular osmolality
3) Intracellular water content
4) Intracellular pressure
154
What is another example of a Primary Active Transport?
Calcium Pumps
(i.e. skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle fibers)
155
What are the 2x things that Calcium Pumps do?
1) Pumps calcium ions across cell membrane from intracellular to extracellular compartment
2) Pumps calcium ions from cytoplasm to sarcoplasmic reticulum
156
What is Secondary Active Transport?
ATP is used indirectly
157
What are the 2x different types of Secondary Active Transport?
Co-Transport (Symport) & Counter-Transport (Antiport)
158
What are 4x examples of Secondary Active Co-Transport?
1) Sodium - Glucose
2) Sodium - Amino Acids
3) Sodium - Potassium
4) Many others
159
What are 2x examples of the Secondary Active Counter-Transport?
1) Sodium - Hydrogen
2) Sodium - Calcium
160
What is Secondary Active Co-Transport?
2x substances bind with their transport protein and are transported across the membrane in the same direction
161
Where are Secondary Active Co-Transports found in the body? (2x)
1) Renal Tubules
2) Small Intestine
*Places of rapid reabsorption*
162
Secondary Active Co-Transporters and Counter-Transporters are dependent on the activity of what pump?
Primary Active Sodium/Potassium Pump
163
What is Secondary Active Counter-Transport?
2x solutes are being transported in opposite directions (i.e. sodium moving with the gradient, hydrogen moving against the gradient)
164
Where are Secondary Active Counter-Transports found in the body? (1x)
Kidneys
165
What is Endocytosis?
An active transport mechanism
166
What are the 2x types of Endocytosis?
Pinocytosis & Phagocytosis
167
What is Pinocytosis?
"Cell Drinking"
The cell takes in water and small particles dissolved in the water
168
What is Phagocytosis?
"Cell Eating"
Ingestion of larger particles by the cell
(i.e. ingestion of old worn out red blood cells, microorganisms, and bacteria)
169
What is Exocytosis?
Secretion of substances from inside the cell to outside the cell (still active transport)
170
What 2x types of cells have a primary role of Exocytosis?
1) Endocrine cells (secretes hormones)
2) Neurons (secretes neurotransmitters)
171
Why is Endocytosis and Exocytosis considered active transport mechanism?
The cell membrane uses contractile proteins to change its shape to surround the substances. Energy is extracted from ATP to change the shape of the cell membrane.
172
What is the process of a Calcium Dependent Exocytosis of Neurotransmitter? (5x)
1) Action potential travels down the axon
2) Voltage change opens up gated calcium channels along the axon
3) Calcium moves with its electrical chemical gradient (outside --> inside cell)
4) Calcium binds to sensor protein in cytoplasm
5) Calcium protein complex leads to Docking --> Fusion --> Exocytosis of the neurotransmitter
173
True or False: The release of norepinephrine (neurotransmitter) is dependent on extracellular calcium concentration.
True
