Week 10: Problem Solving

Question 1

What is problem solving?

Answer 1

• refers to a cognitive process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems
• is recursive and cyclical

Question 2

What are the steps to problem solving?

Answer 2

1. Recognize or identify the problem.
2. Define and represent the problem mentally.
3. Develop a solution strategy.
4. Organize knowledge about the problem.
5. Allocate mental and physical resources for solving the problem.
6. Monitor progress toward the goal.
7. Evaluate the solution for accuracy.

Question 3

Initial state

Answer 3

Describes and defines the type of problem

Question 4

Goal state

Answer 4

A state ofresolution/over-coming the problem

Question 5

Well-defined problems

Answer 5

have correct solutions & clearly defined states

Question 6

Ill-defined problems

Answer 6

may not have just one correct answer & problem state may be unclear

Question 7

The behaviouralist approach

Answer 7

Solutions are discovered via trial-and-error learning.

Question 8

The Gestalt approach: Wertheimer 1959

Answer 8

Solutions are discovered by cognitive restructuring

Question 9

The Law of Effect (Thorndike)

Answer 9

• Problem solving may be viewed as a reproductive process, which involves reusing information gained from trial-and-error experiences to generate responses.
• Any response that produces a
  satisfying effect/positive outcome
  gradually becomes stronger
• Any response that does not produce
  a satisfying effect/positive outcome
  becomes weaker
• Precursor to operant conditioning, and modern reinforcement learning methods (in AI).

Question 10

Wertheimer (1959): The Gestalt Approach

Answer 10

Problem solving is (sometimes) a productive process.

Question 11

Insight: Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987)

Answer 11

• when a solution to a problem suddenly occurs to you
• not good at predicting how close to solving problem

Question 12

Productive Process/ non-insight: Metcalfe & Wiebe (1987)

Answer 12

• Thinking about a problem by restructuring and/or recombining
  information in your mind (unconscious)
• good at predicting how close to solving problem

Question 13

The cognitive cycle

Answer 13

collect info > choose action>

Question 14

Recursive Dynamics

Answer 14

Steps are repeated as many times as necessary.

Question 15

Intermediate States

Answer 15

All of the possible states between
initial and goal states

Question 16

operators

Answer 16

Actions that transform current problem states into others

Question 17

problem spaces: (Newell & Simon, 1972)

Answer 17

• Search through the problem space, creating subgoals as needed
• move through problem space using operators

Question 18

Use of heuristics more common…

Answer 18

o Information overload
o Time-sensitive tasks
o Unimportant circumstances
o Limited information availability
o Competing heuristics

Question 19

Working backwards (backward chaining)

Answer 19

Focused on the end result to solve a problem

Question 20

Means-End Analysis

Answer 20

achieving goals by creating subgoals that move you closer to end result

Question 21

Barriers to solving problems

Answer 21

1. ignoring relevant info
2. functional fixedness (Maier 1931)- tie ropes together task & most struggled to solve iwthout a cue

Question 22

ignoring relevant info

Answer 22

• one must decide what is relevant
• is acquired and not innate
• ## this is more difficult when dealing with ill-versus well-defined problems

Question 23

functional fixedness

Answer 23

• perceiving an item only in terms of its most common use
• inhibits other potential interpretations of problem scenarios
• people tend to focus on a characteristic of a problem which prevents them from finding a solution

Question 24

creativity

Answer 24

being able to produce novel ideas that are appropriate and relevant to the situation

Question 25

convergent thinking: Guilford (1967)

Answer 25

Approaching a problem using well established knowledge, rules and methods

Question 26

Divergent thinking: Guilford (1967)

Answer 26

Approaching a problem by generating many possible solutions (this includes creativity)

Question 27

Ideational Fluency

Answer 27

The number of ideas a person can generate about a topic or item

Question 28

Mental sets

Answer 28

The tendency to use solutions that have worked in the past, or to respond to something in a set way

Question 29

Conditions of mental sets

Answer 29

- blind to alt sol'ns - tend to create mental sets while paying attention to similarities or relationships between past and current problems - once that relationship has been established, people will try keep trying solutions that worked in the past even if the current problem requires a different solution

Question 30

How experts organise knowledge (Chase & Simon 1973)

Answer 30

- chess: experts thoose advantage when placement is incorrect spend more analysing a problem - spend less time planning steps to solve it - have automated processes basded on experience - spend more time comparing previous experiences to current ones - use what they already know - quickly execute once they know what to do

Question 31

The 9 dot problem (Maier, 1930)

Answer 31

Connect the nine dots with four straight lines drawn without lifting your pencil