Week 10 - The Self

Question 1

The self

Answer 1

• Physical characteristics
• Personality traits
• Personal preferences
• Social and familial relationships
• Details of ethnicity, culture, national origin

Question 2

Self concept

Answer 2

Conceptual system made up of one’s thoughts and attitudes about oneself

Physical being, social roles and relationships, and internal characteristics

Understanding of how the self changes or remains the same over time

Question 3

Emergence of the self concept

Answer 3

Emerges early and continues to develop into adulthood
* More complex with increased emotional and cognitive
development
* Is enhanced when adults provide descriptive information about the child

Question 4

Development of self 0-18 months

Answer 4

○ Rudimentary understanding of one’s physical self
○ Begin to appreciate that they are different from
others (self-other differentiation)

Question 5

Development of self 18-20 months

Answer 5

Know reflection in mirror is themselves Tested via the “Rouge Test”
Cross-cultural differences

Question 6

Development of self 2 years

Answer 6

Recognize themselves in photographs (life story)
Show embarrassment and shame
Self-awareness (via self-assertion)

Question 7

Development of self in childhood

Answer 7

Sense of self is largely a social construction based on observations and
evaluations from others, as well as how they are treated by others

At age 3 to 4
Understand concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities and abilities, psychological traits, and preferences Self-evaluations unrealistically positive

Question 8

Self concept in elementary school

Answer 8

Increasingly based on relationships with
others (namely peers)

Care about others’ evaluations of them
(consider popularity and performance)
self

social comparison

coordinates opposing self representations - smart in math, bad at science

Question 9

social comparison

Answer 9

process of comparing aspects of one’s own psychological, behavioral, or physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself

Question 10

development of self in early adolescence

Answer 10

Abstract thinking leads to abstract characteristics to describe themselves

Multiple selves (e.g., self with parents vs. with friends vs. at their job) and lack the ability to integrate these into a coherent whole (which resolves over time)

Question 11

development of self in early adolescence is characterized by

Answer 11

ego centrism

Personal fable - a story that adolescents tell about themselves that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of their own feelings and their
immortality - nobody else understands

Imaginary audience - refers to the belief that everyone is focused on the adolescent’s appearance and behavior

Question 12

development of self in middle adolesence

Answer 12

Are better than younger adolescents at identifying contradictions in themselves

BUT begin to agonize over the contradictions in their behavior and
characteristics
* Introspective: “Who am I?”
* Most do not have the cognitive skills
needed to integrate contradictions into a coherent conception of self

Question 13

development of self in late adolescence and early adulthood

Answer 13

The conception of self becomes more integrated and less determined by what others think

Conceptions of self frequently reflect internalized personal values, beliefs, and standards - am I a good person?

Able to integrate opposing facets of self with…

Support from parents, teachers, and others is important in helping adolescents understand the complexity of personalities.

Question 14

self esteem

Answer 14

overall subjective evaluation of their worth and the feelings they have about that evaluation

costs of high self-esteem - arrogance, narcissism, aggression, overestimate capabilities may not ask for help

Low self esteem associated with anxiety, depression, and bullying

Question 15

sources of self esteem

Answer 15

Changes in self-esteem over time
* High in childhood, drops in -
adolescence, and high in adulthood

• Gender - males have higher self esteem overall and in athletics, appearance, and self satisfaction - females have lower overall, but higher in behavioural conduct and moral-ethical esteem

Question 16

Parents and self esteem

Answer 16

• Approval and support
• Self-esteem is grounded in the quality of our relationships
  being
• If children are loved = they believe are worthy of love as adolescents and adults
• Discipline:
• Firm but loving = potential for high self-esteem
• Consistent belittlement or rejection and social comparison= low self-
  ~ low support esteem (“why can’t you be more like your sister?”)

Question 17

inflated praise

Answer 17

less challenge seeking behaviour - less motivation

avoid using inflated praise on kids with low self esteem especially - set realistic standards - if bar is too high - they dont wanna fail

Question 18

peers and self esteem

Answer 18

Feelings of competence depend, in part, on how peers evaluate them
* At the same time, children’s self-esteem likely affects how peers
respond to them

Question 19

schools/neighbourhoods and self esteem

Answer 19

• Switch from elementary/middle school to high school is difficult * New group of peers and new social order
• Violent neighborhoods→low self-esteem

Question 20

culture and self esteem

Answer 20

Western societies→individual accomplishments
* Asian societies→collective welfare
* Self-criticism and efforts at self-improvement are the norm
collective
* More comfortable with acknowledging good and bad traits

Question 21

which theory considers influences of self esteem

Answer 21

bioecological theory

Question 22

identity

Answer 22

an individual’s sense of self defined by (a) a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person and (b) a range of affiliations (e.g., ethnicity) and social roles

We each have multiple identities.

Adolescence is a period in which children get to know their multiple identities and forge new identities that are separate from their parents and childhood friends.

Question 23

difference between identity and self concept

Answer 23

Identity = label - broader

Self-concept = ingredients + internal knowledge

Question 24

theories of identity development

Answer 24

During adolescence…

• There is an identity crisis
• Re-evaluation of commitments
• Outcome:
• 1) Renewed commitment to previously held beliefs
• 2) Total rejection of them

Question 25

identity development design

Answer 25

moratorium - exploring with no commitment identity achievement - explored and committed identity diffusion - no progress toward exploring or committing identity foreclosures - committed with low exploration, takes on parents values

Question 26

most typical sequence

Answer 26

Diffusion → foreclosure → achievement Diffusion → moratorium → foreclosure → achievement

Question 27

identity sequence depends on

Answer 27

Warmth and support of parents * Child’s own interests * Socioeconomic status (only so many resources available for exploration) * Can be bound by historical context * In the past, identity for girls was focused on marriage and family * Today: family + career

Question 28

racial / ethnic identity

Answer 28

Beliefs and attitudes an individual has about the ethnic or racial groups to which they belong * Preschool children do not really understand the significance of the ethnicity/race they belong to * By early school years, children know the common foods, traditional activities, language use and so on * Identify themselves in terms of their race/ethnicity by 5-8 years of age (but gender is a more fundamental part of identity) * Minority-group youth may face a decision: * Whether to lean into their culture of origin or take on some of the behaviours and values of the new culture (acculturation) * Racial/ethnic identity is associated with positive outcomes * Pride due to culture = less affected by discrimination

Question 29

sexual identity

Answer 29

sense of oneself as a sexual being Sexual orientation: individual’s romantic attractions to people of various genders * Separate from gender identity partly hereditary - identical twins are more likely to have similar sexual orientation compared to fraternal twins

Question 30

development of sexual identity

Answer 30

first recognition - realization that one is somewhat different than others - accompanied with feelings of alienation Report feeling same sex attraction between ages 10-15, did not identify until after 15, did not disclose until after 20 University age - more females identify as “mostly straight” - females more likely to describe themselves as bisexual or mostly heterosexual

Question 31

attachment

Answer 31

○ Close and enduring emotional bond with a specific person child-caregiver attachment - emotional deprivation and lack of meaningful relationships with caregivers in first years - hinder optimal social and cognitive development

Question 32

institutionalized children without primary caregiver

Answer 32

No concern for other’s emotions Isolated and withdrawn Histories of violence, stealing, and sexual misdemeanors

Question 33

cloth mother experiment

Answer 33

argue that food links baby to mothers through classical conditioning Harlow removed young monkeys from their natural mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be "raised" by these mother surrogates. The experiment demonstrated that the baby monkeys spent significantly more time with their cloth mother than with their wire mother - comfort, secure

Question 34

bowlby's attachment theory

Answer 34

Based on Freud’s idea that early infancy/childhood experiences matter * Child = competence-motivated - * Secure base: presence of a trusted caregiver, provides an infant/child with a sense of security that makes it possible to explore Several purposes of attachment - enhances infant chance of survival by keeping caregiver close, helps child feel emotionally secure to allow children to explore world, serves as a form of co-regulation imprinting - rooted in evolution, but quality of attachment depends on nature of experience with caregiver

Question 35

functions of attachment

Answer 35

* Survival - necessary fo r survival * Security→exploration - secure base * Co-regulation of emotions * Form internal working models they are * Representations of caregivers u * Representation of the self - * Representations of relationships

Question 36

four phases of attachment

Answer 36

Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) Infants produces signals calling attention to be comforted by someone else Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 6-8 months) Infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people Clear-cut attachment (between 6-8 months and 11⁄2-2 years) Infant's actively seek contact with regular caregivers and typically show separation protest or distress when the caregiver departs Reciprocal relationships (from 11⁄2 or 2 years on) Children play active role in developing working partnerships with their caregivers

Question 37

attachment theory - ainsworth

Answer 37

Developed “The Strange Situation” to assess infants' attachment to their primary caregivers * Focused on two factors: Secure base, Reaction to separation and reunion

Question 38

the strange situation procedure

Answer 38

* Laboratory setting * Room with various interesting toys * Child is exposed to: Separations and reunions with the caregiver, Interactions with a stranger

Question 39

8 episodes of the strasnge situation

Answer 39

1: experimenter introduces caregiver and infant to unfamiliar room * 2: caregiver and child alone - caregiver told to not initiate interaction - assessing exploration and use of caregiver as a base * 3: Stranger enters and sits quietly for 1 minute, speaks to caregiver for 1 minute, tries to speak to infant for 1 minute - assessing reaction to the stranger * 4: child left alone w stranger - assess separation distress, reaction to strangers comforting * 5: caregiver enters room and pauses by door, stranger leaves - assess first reaction to reunion with caregiver * 6: caregiver leaves infant alone - assessing separation distress * 7: stranger enters, comforts infant - assessing ability to be soothed by stranger * 8: caregiver calls, enters - reaction to reunion

Question 40

secure attachment

Answer 40

high-quality, positive relationship with his or her attachment figure In the Strange Situation infants: * May be upset when the caregiver leaves * May be happy to see the caregiver return * Recovers quickly from distress when caregiver returns back * Use caregivers as a secure base for exploration 50-60%

Question 41

insecure/resistant attachment

Answer 41

described by clinginess to caregiver In the Strange Situation Infants: * Very upset when caregiver leaves * Not comforted by stranger * Not easily comforted by caregiver when she/he returns * Do use caregiver as a secure base 9%

Question 42

insecure/avoidant attachment

Answer 42

children are indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver * In the Strange Situation Infants: * Indifferent to caregiver before the caregiver leaves * Indifferent or avoidant when the caregiver returns * Can be comforted by stranger when distressed 15%

Question 43

disorganized/disoriented attachment

Answer 43

children did not fit into the other categories In the Strange Situation: * No consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation * Behavior is confused or contradictory * Infant appears dazed or disoriented 15%

Question 44

parental sensitivity

Answer 44

Parental sensitivity: caregiving behaviour involves expressing warmth and responsiveness to children * Read baby’s signals * Respond quickly to needs * Positive exchanges (e.g., mutual smiling, laughing, touch)

Question 45

genetic predisposition for attachment

Answer 45

No genetic explanation for attachment * Epigenetic effects play a role in the expression of attachment behaviour * Certain “reactive” genes have been associated with vulnerability in the face of adversity/stress → showed disorganized attachment

Question 46

Allele variants of SLC6A4 gene

Answer 46

- participants with variant associated with vulnerability in face of stress, had less security and more disorganization if they grew up in institution vs growing up at home - children with other genotype did not exhibit this behaviour

Question 47

DRD4 system

Answer 47

* DRD4 - dopamine system - associated with disorganized attachment when infant is stressed, but more security in less stressful situation

Question 48

attachment across cultures

Answer 48

Children use mothers as a secure base when exploring their environment * Differences in behaviour→ Children from South America were least likely to remain in close physical proximity to their mothers Cultural Variations in Attachment Styles * Behaviours similar across countries - in all, children used mother as secure base * Children in Colombia and Peru - less likely to remain in close physical proximity to mothers * Children in Italy and Portugal - more likely to maintain physical contact with mothers

Question 49

does security of attachment have long term effects?

Answer 49

Children who were securely attached as infants (vs. insecurely attached): * Childhood➔closer, more harmonious relationships with peers * Adolescence➔positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health * Earn higher grades and are more involved in school

Question 50

socialization

Answer 50

Process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their culture

Question 51

parents as...

Answer 51

Parents as direct instructors: Directly teaching skills,rules,and strategies ▪ Parents as indirect socializers: Indirect socialization through their own behavior with and around their children ▪ Parents as social managers: Managing children’s experiences and social lives (e.g., exposure to people, activities, and information)

Question 52

discipline

Answer 52

direct socialization strategy that consists of a set of behaviours parents use to teach children how to act appropriately * Successful when the child internalizes the reasons for the desired behaviour

Question 53

effective discipline strategy for promoting internalization?

Answer 53

Other-oriented induction * E.g., child keeps hitting their sister. Parent orients the child to the harm that they have caused and explains the effects of the harm on their sister * Teaches children empathy for others and guilt (moral emotions) * Whenever there is a rule that’s enforced, providing reasoning is always better than not providing reasoning

Question 54

punishment

Answer 54

Time-out or taking away privileges + reasoning can be effective * BUT only under certain conditions (remember last lecture...) * Important to remember that children WANT to be good * When children “misbehave”, it’s likely because they don’t yet have the appropriate skills to navigate the situation they’re in * Think about that before employing a punishment * Ineffective - spanking, yelling, time out, taking away privileges, love withdrawal * Spanking increase risk of low self esteem, low cognitive ability

Question 55

why is corporal punishment ineffective?

Answer 55

spanking impacts relationship with parent develop aggression learns that it is okay to hit people if spanking is normalized in culture, less impact, but on average leads to more aggression

Question 56

parenting styles

Answer 56

Parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent-child interactions

Question 57

parenting style dimensions

Answer 57

Parental responsiveness (warmth) and demandingness (control) ▪ Pioneering research done by Diana Baumrind (1973) ▪ Four parenting styles

Question 58

4 parenting styles

Answer 58

Authoritarian HC , LW ▪ High behavior standards ▪ Strict punishment of misconduct ▪ Little communication Authoritative HC , HW ▪ Sets clear boundaries but is warm and listens ▪ Attentive to concerns and communicates openly Permissive LC, HL ▪ High nurturance and communication ▪ Little discipline, guidance, or control of misconduct Uninvolved (disengaged) LC LW ▪ Indifference, sometimes rejecting/neglectful ▪ Unaware of what happens in child’s life ▪ Focused on own needs

Question 59

children of authoritarian parents

Answer 59

○ Low in social and academic competence ○ Are unhappy and unfriendly, with boys affected more negatively than girls in early childhood ○ Inability to cope with daily stressors ○ High levels of depression, aggression, delinquency, & alcohol problems

Question 60

Children of Authoritative Parents

Answer 60

○ Competent, Self-assured, Popular ○ Able to control their own behavior ○ Low in antisocial behaviors in childhood ○ In adolescence: high in social and academic competence and positive behavior, low in problem behavior

Question 61

Children of Uninvolved Parents

Answer 61

○ Infants and toddlers tend to have attachment problems ○ As children, they have poor peer relationships ○ Adolescents tend to show antisocial behavior, poor self-regulation, internalizing problems, substance abuse, risky sexual behavior, and low academic and social competence

Question 62

Children of Permissive Parents

Answer 62

As children: impulsive, lacking in self- control, high externalizing behaviors, and low in school achievement ○ As adolescents: engage in more school misconduct and drug/alcohol use than do those with authoritative parents

Question 63

parenting and attachment styles

Answer 63

* Secure - parent is responsive to signals, affectionate, expressive, frequent close contact with child * Insecure/avoidant - parent insensitive to child’s signals, avoids close contact, rejects child’s bids for contact, may be angry, irritable, impatient * Insecure/resistant - Inconsistent or awkward in reacting to child’s distress, seems overwhelmed with tasks of caregiving * Disorganized/disoriented - Intrusive, emotionally unavailable, may be in a trance like state, confuses or frightens child, may be harsh or abusive

Question 64

attachment and social-emotional development

Answer 64

* Attachment styles predict later social emotional development * Secure - positive and constructive internal working models, learn it is acceptable to express emotions appropriately - higher in self-regulation, sociability, social competence - less anxious, depressed, socially withdrawn - better understand others emotions * 2.5x less likely to develop mental health problems * Insecure/avoidant - Inhibit emotional expressiveness, not seek comfort * Insecure father attachment - more strongly correlated with child conduct problems than insecure mother attachments

Question 65

autism spectrum disorder and the self

Answer 65

* Refer to themselves in the third person * Difficulties differentiating themselves from other people * Promote self awareness through joint attention activities * ASD self awareness - gains in self awareness and no decrease in self esteem

Question 66

differences in mothers and fathers interactions with children

Answer 66

* Mothers - physical care, emotional support, warmer, responsive * Fathers - more time playing with children, rough and tumble play * Effects of mothers and fathers acceptance and warmth were linked with positive psychological adjustment

Question 67

child's influence on parenting

Answer 67

* Individual differences contribute to the parenting they receive - behaviour and temperament * Children may become whiny and aggressive and parents back down, or parents become frustrated and escalate negative behaviours - coercive cycles * Bidirectionality can occur with negative behaviours - parents use of spanking at age 1 predicts greater child aggression at age 3 which predicts more spanking at age 5

Question 68

sibling relationships

Answer 68

Can interact like peers - sharing and reciprocity - or parents - power and influence - older sibling have influence Can be rivals - siblings with a positive relationship are more likely to compromise with one another Siblings get along better if their parents get along better - conflict between siblings is higher in divorced families and remarried families