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Brain And Behaviour > Week 12 - Consciousness > Flashcards

Week 12 - Consciousness Flashcards

1
Q

What is consciousness?

A

‘Our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives’ (Lilienfeld et al., 2015)

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2
Q

What’re the two main functions of consciousness?

A

To monitor: monitor self and environment -> monitor perception, thoughts, emotions, goals, problem solving plans

To control: to regulate thought and behaviour -> initiate or terminate behaviour to attain goals

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3
Q

Neurobiology of Arousal – Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A

To be conscious, there needs to be a certain level of arousal

RAS – includes midline nuclei in the upper brainstem (pons, medulla, midbrain and posterior hypothalamus).

Controls arousal – projects to thalamus and frontal regions

Alternate sleep and waking and control general level of brain and behavioural arousal

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4
Q

The Nature and Function of Sleep

A
  • We spend ~1/3 of our lives asleep, but scientists are still unclear about the exact function of sleep
  • The amount of sleep people (anddifferentspecies) need varies dramatically
  • People find their peak in alertness and arousal at different times (e.g. “night owls” vs. “early birds”)
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5
Q

What is the rate of sleep needed across the lifespan?

A

We begin needing a lot of sleep, it then decreases throughout our lifetime

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6
Q

Sleep as a circadian rhythm

A
  • Sleep-wake cycle is governed by circadian rhythms
  • Circadian rhythms are biological clocks that evolved around the daily cycles of light and dark
  • Other circadian rhythms include body temperature, and hormones
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7
Q

Wakefulness

A

Normal waking is associated with an irregular pattern of EEG characterised by:

– Beta waves (13-22 Hz): higher mental activity
– Alpha waves (8-12 Hz): calm wakefulness

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8
Q

Sleep - stage 1

A

Stage 1 sleep is brief (5-10 minutes) with slower theta waves (4-7 cycles per second).

  • Hypnagogic imagery: confused dreamlike images
  • Hypnic myoclonia: sense of falling/uncontrolled muscle contractions
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9
Q

Sleep - stage 2

A

Stage 2 sleep (10-30 mins)
EEG pattern of slightly slower waves, interrupted by bursts of:

  • Sleep spindles: bursts of low- amplitude activity (12-14 Hz)
  • K complexes: occasional slow, high amplitude waves
  • Muscles relax, heart rate slows, body temperature decreased, eye movements cease
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10
Q

Sleep - stage 3 and 4

A
  • Stage 3 sleep marked by 20- 50% slow delta waves (1-2Hz).
  • Stage 4 sleep characterised by >50% delta waves.
  • Stages 3 and 4 together are “delta sleep” or deep sleep (15-30 mins)
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11
Q

Sleep – Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

A
  • In REM sleep (10-20 mins), EEG resembles the faster, waking brain pattern.
  • Eyes move rapidly back & forth
  • Autonomic activity increases
  • Muscles are “turned off”
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12
Q

Sleep- wake cycle

A
  • Complete cycle of REM/non-REM is 90 mins
  • Sleep-wake cycle occurs 4-5 times a night
  • As the night progresses, we spend less time in delta sleep and more in REM (25% of sleep in REM)
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13
Q

Dreaming

A

Everyone dreams several times a night

Dreaming is more common in REM sleep

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14
Q

What are NREM dreams?

A
  • shorter
  • more throughout life
  • repetitive
  • concerned with daily tasks
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15
Q

What are REM dreams?

A
  • more dreams
  • emotional/ illogical
  • prone to plot shifts
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16
Q

Dream Content

A
  • Often simulation of everyday life
  • Negative themes more common than positive
  • Some cultural differences in content
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17
Q

What’re the most frequent dreams?

A
  1. Being chased or perused
  2. Being lost, late or trapped
  3. Falling
  4. Flying
  5. Losing valuable possessions
  6. Sexual dreams
  7. Experiencing great natural beauty
  8. Being naked or dressed oddly
  9. Injury or illness
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18
Q

Lucid dreaming

A

• Awareness of dreaming

• Often when something bizarre or
unlikely happens

  • Features of waking and REM
  • Can we control our dreams to change our reality?
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19
Q

What is Freuds psychodynamic theory of why we dream?

A

Psychodynamic theory of dreaming (Freud)

•Repressed wishes or unconscious desires of the‘ ego’

•Interpretation based on working out the latent from
the manifest content

• BUT
– Why don’t we have more positive dreams? – Why don’t we have more sexual dreams? – Why are many dreams everyday activities? – Nightmares aren’t wish fulfilment?

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20
Q

Activation/synthesis theory of why we dream:

A

• Forebrain tries to interpret signals received from other brain areas during REM
– Acetyl choline activates Pons
– Signals sent thalamus and then
language/visual areas of forebrain
– Amygdala activation adds emotional content

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21
Q

Forebrain hypothesis in why we dream:

A

– Damage to forebrain can stop dreaming, suggesting

interaction between forebrain areas is important

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22
Q

Neurocognitive perspective on why we dream

A

– Processing or solving problems, integration of previously learned and new information, memory consolidation (including emotional)
– Complexity of dreaming mirrors cognitive development

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23
Q

Insomnia

A
  • Inability to fall asleep(>30minutes)
  • Waking during the night
  • Waking too early
  • Higher rates among people with depression, pain, medical conditions, and older age
  • Short term causes:stress,medications,illness,shift work, jet lag, napping during day
24
Q

How can insomnia be treated?

A
  • Sleeping tablets–may be counter productive
  • Brief psychotherapy
  • Sleep hygiene–more effective

– Go to bed and wake at a regular time
– Sleep in a cool room
– Avoid stimulating /stressful activities and electronic devices
before bed
– Avoid day-time napping & caffeine (after 2pm)
– Get out of bed and wait until you feel tired
– Don’t watch the clock
– Regular exercise

25
Q

Night terrors

A

• Occur mostly in children

• Often appear awake and highly
distressed

  • No recollection later
  • Occur in stages 3 and 4 of sleep(cf nightmares - occur in REM sleep)
26
Q

Sleepwalking

A
  • More frequent in children
  • Can be triggered by stress
  • Usually involves mundane/normal behaviour (NOT the zombie-like walking shown in movies!)
  • Typically occurs in non-REM(stage3&4)
27
Q

What’re the effects of sleep deprivation?

A

Sleep deprivation can result in:

  • Depression
  • Problems with memory/attention
  • Hallucinations
  • Risk of high blood pressure, diabetes and cardiovascular problems
  • Weight gain
  • Reduced immune function
28
Q

Sleep deprivation

A
  • Sleep deprived people perform as badly or worse than intoxicated people in driving simulators
  • Sleep deprivation also magnifies the effects of alcohol
  • Caffeine can’t fix severe sleep deprivation
29
Q

Hallucinations

A

sensation experienced despite lack of environmental stimuli

• Visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile

• Sensory areas (e.g., visual cortex) become
activated during hallucinations

  • Disorders (eg schizophrenia, epilepsy) or substances (eg LSD), BUT not always…
  • May hold cultural / religious significance in some societies
30
Q

Out of body experiences

A

Out-of-body experiences: sensation of self leaving the body, and sometimes travelling to other places (astral planing), or observing the body engaging in activity.

  • Can be induced by activation (TMS) of the temporal- parietal junction
  • Possible form of synaesthesia?
31
Q

Near death experiences

A

Near-death experiences: sensation of passing to another realm or having your life flash before eyes.

Often religion/culturally specific
Potential scientific explanations:

  • Sense of peace-flood of endorphins
  • Life flashing before eyes-search memories for escape
  • Tunnel/lights/sounds-reduced oxygen supply to brain

Can be triggered by electrical stimulation of temporal lobe, lack of oxygen, psychedelic and anaesthetic drugs

32
Q

Meditation

A

Meditation: direct attempts to control attention and awareness.

  • Concentrative meditation: focus on object, breathing, mantra.
  • Mindfulness meditation: detached focus on thoughts, sensation,awareness. Increasingly used in mainstream therapy
  • Evidence that regular meditation
  • Increases happiness
  • Reduces hypertension
  • reduces stress/anxiety
  • Specific vs non-specific effects – is it simply sitting quietly that causes effects, rather than meditation itself?
33
Q

Hypnosis

A

• Hypnotic induction rituals AND suggestions to alter perception, thoughts, feelings, behaviour

• CommonMyths
– People do things against will
– Hypnotic phenomena only happen
under hypnosis
– Hypnosis is a dream-like state
– People forget what happened
– Hypnosis improves memory
34
Q

What is the socio cognitive theory (non-state theory)in an explanation of hypnosis?

A

• Socio-cognitive theory (non-state theory): attitudes, beliefs, and expectations about hypnosis and susceptibility to respond to waking imaginative suggestions shapes response to hypnosis

– More likely to resist if told that is possible
– Suggestibility increased if effects of hypnotism are
promoted

35
Q

What is the disassociation theory (state theory) as an explanation of hypnosis?

A
  • Dissociation theory (state theory): altered state of consciousness is induced.
  • Ernest Hilgard – Part of mind in altered state of consciousness, dissociated part (‘hidden observer’) remains aware.
  • BUT, hidden observer could appear due to susceptibility to suggestion / instruction
36
Q

What is the disassociated control theory as an explanation of hypnosis?

A

• Dissociated control theory: Hypnosis bypasses frontal control processes that govern behaviour

37
Q

Hypnosis in clinical practise

A

• Hypnosis as a clinical tool:

– Symptom reduction (eg pain reduction)
– Treatment of habit disorders (eg smoking addiction)
– An adjunct to other forms of psychotherapy

  • Hypnosis is not a stand-alone therapy.
  • Practitioners should also have conventional training.
  • BUT training is poorly regulated!
38
Q

What are psychoactive drugs in chemically altering consciousness?

A

Psychoactive drugs: Induce changes in thinking, perception & behavior by affecting neural activity in the brain.

39
Q

What are stimulants?

A

Increased activity of the CNS.

Example: tobacco, cocaine, meth, amphetamines

40
Q

What are depressants?

A

Decreased activity of the CNS.
Examples are:
Alcohol, Valium

41
Q

What are opiates?

A

Sense of euphoria, decreased pain, sleep.

Examples are:
Heroin
Morphine
Codeine

42
Q

What are psychedelics?

A

Dramatically altered perception, mood and thoughts; hallucinations.

Examples are:
Marijuana
LSD
ecstasy

43
Q

Psychoactive drug actions

A

Drug action is affected by a range of factors

  • Biochemical–neurotransmitter release is increased, decreased, or disregulated in manner by the drug
  • Physiological–CNS is depressed or stimulated(asa result of neurotransmitter changes), leading to physiological changes
  • Social/Cultural–The setting and expectations and beliefs regarding the effects of drugs
44
Q

Theories of addiction in substance use disorder:

A

– Physical dependence: drug is taken to avoid negative withdrawal symptoms

– Psychological dependence: drug taken to obtain the positive feelings (positive incentive theory)

45
Q

Reward pathways and drugs

A

•Most drugs of dependence result in dopamine release in the reward pathway of the brain (mesocorticolimbic pathway = red)

46
Q

Stimulants: cocaine

A

– Euphoria, suppression of hunger / pain, increased
mental/physical activity.

– Increases dopamine (also serotonin and
norepinephrine)

47
Q

Stimulants: (Meth)amphetamine

A

(Speed, Crystal meth/ice)

– Euphoria, decreased hunger / pain, increased mental/physical activity

– May include paranoia, depression, anxiety, hallucinations

– Increases levels of dopamine (also serotonin and norepinephrine)

48
Q

Stimulants: ecstasy

A

Ecstasy (MDMA)

– sense of wellbeing, feeling close to others, increased
tactile sensation. Depression in following days

– Increases serotonin (also dopamine, and
norepinephrine)

49
Q

Stimulants: nicotine

A

– Sense of wellbeing and alertness.

– Activates receptors associated with the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

50
Q

Depressants: alcohol

A

Alcohol:

– Small amounts increase well being and social interaction, but reduce physiological functioning (cognitive processing, co-ordination, alertness)

– large effects on GABA (major inhibitory neurotransmitter)

51
Q

Depressants: sedatives/ hypnotics

A

– Benzodiazepines, barbiturates, non-barbiturates

– Neurotransmitter action depends on type

– BZDs increase action of GABA

52
Q

Opiates

A
  • Painkilling (analgesic) and sedative effects, cough suppression, diarrhea treatment, euphoria, muscle relaxation
  • Opiates depress the CNS

• All derived from the opium poppy – Opium
– Morphine – Codeine – Heroin

• Increases/mimics endorphins.

53
Q

Hallucinogens/psychedelics

A

•Hallucinogens(psychedelics)cause dramatic changes in perception, mood and thought.

– Cannabis
– LSD
– Psilocybin (magic mushrooms)
– Dissociative anesthetics (Ketamine, PCP)

54
Q

Hallucinogens - cannabis

A

Acute effects: sense of wellbeing, relaxation, changes perception (including visual, auditory, temporal).

  • THC (psychoactive ingredient) acts on cannabinoid receptors, mimicking effects of endocannbinoids such as anandamide. Also increases dopamine
  • Like alcohol, social expectancies play a part in experience
  • Increased risk for psychosis among those with genetic susceptibility – low base rate
55
Q

Hallucinogens - LSD (d-lysergic acid diethylamide)

A

• LSD from ergot fungi (grows on rye and other grains).

• Can cause synaesthesia, hallucinations and sometimes panic
and paranoid delusions.

  • Typically taken orally (infused paper or drop of liquid)
  • Acts on serotonin and dopamine (and several other neurotransmitters) – complex action
  • Initially thought to be a valuable tool in psychotherapy

• Not very addictive - does not produce compulsive drug-
seeking

56
Q

Hallucinogens - Psilocybin

A
  • Psilocybin is hallucinogenic substance found in some mushrooms (magic mushrooms, shrooms)
  • Psilocybin affects action of serotonin
  • Historically,used by several cultures during religious rituals

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