Week 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the innermost layer of blood vessels called?
A
Tunica Intima
Composed of simple squamous epithelium, termed endothelium.
2
Q
What type of epithelium composes the Tunica Intima?
A
Simple squamous epithelium
Also known as endothelium.
3
Q
What is the function of the Tunica Intima?
A
Regulates vascular tone via release of nitric oxide (NO) and endothelin
Controls inflammation, leukocyte adhesion, and vascular permeability.
4
Q
What layer is primarily composed of smooth muscle cells?
A
Tunica Media
Arranged circularly around the vessel lumen.
5
Q
What does the Tunica Media regulate?
A
Vasoconstriction and vasodilation
Influences blood pressure and flow.
6
Q
What type of fibers does the Tunica Media contain?
A
Elastic fibers, collagen, and proteoglycans
Larger arteries have a well-defined external elastic lamina.
7
Q
What is the outermost layer of blood vessels called?
A
Tunica Externa
Also known as Adventitia.
8
Q
What is the primary composition of the Tunica Externa?
A
Type I collagen fibers
Contains some elastic fibers and fibroblasts.
9
Q
What is the function of the Tunica Externa?
A
Provides structural support and anchors vessels
Supports neurovascular signaling to the vessel wall.
10
Q
What are vasa vasorum?
A
A microvascular network
Nourishes the outer layers of large arteries and veins.
11
Q
What is the clinical relevance of vasa vasorum?
A
Inflammation or proliferation is implicated in plaque rupture in atherosclerosis
Important for understanding vascular health.
12
Q
What is the tunica media like in arteries?
A
Thick, muscular, elastic
The tunica media is responsible for the strength and elasticity of arteries, allowing them to handle high pressure.
13
Q
What is the tunica media like in veins?
A
Thin
Veins have a thinner tunica media, which is suitable for lower pressure environments.
14
Q
How does the tunica externa differ between arteries and veins?
A
Arteries have a relatively thinner tunica externa, while veins have a thicker tunica externa.
The tunica externa provides structural support and protection to both blood vessels.
15
Q
What is the lumen size and shape in arteries?
A
Smaller, rounder
The smaller lumen helps maintain high pressure in arteries.
16
Q
What is the lumen size and shape in veins?
A
Larger, irregular shape
The larger lumen allows veins to accommodate more blood at lower pressure.
17
Q
Are valves present in arteries?
A
Absent
Valves are not needed in arteries because blood is pumped directly from the heart under high pressure.
18
Q
Are valves present in veins?
A
Present in medium and large veins (especially lower limbs)
Valves in veins help prevent backflow of blood and assist in venous return to the heart.
19
Q
What is the pressure like in arteries?
A
High
High pressure is necessary to distribute blood effectively throughout the body.
20
Q
What is the pressure like in veins?
A
Low
Low pressure reflects the return of blood to the heart after it has circulated through the body.
21
Q
What is the primary function of arteries?
A
Distribute blood under pressure
Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to various tissues.
22
Q
What is the primary function of veins?
A
Return blood to the heart
Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart for reoxygenation.
23
Q
What clinical implications can arise from venous stasis and valve incompetence?
A
Contribute to varicose veins and chronic venous insufficiency
These conditions can lead to pain, swelling, and other complications in the lower limbs.
24
Q
What is the formula for flow in the context of hemodynamics?
A
Q = ΔP / R
25
In the formula Q = ΔP / R, what does Q represent?
Flow (L/min)
26
In the formula Q = ΔP / R, what does ΔP represent?
Pressure gradient between two points
27
In the formula Q = ΔP / R, what does R represent?
Resistance (primarily in arterioles)
28
What happens to flow when resistance increases, such as in vasoconstriction?
Flow decreases unless pressure compensates
29
What condition can reduce flow despite high pressure?
Aortic stenosis
30
According to Poiseuille’s Law, how is resistance related to the radius?
R ∝ 1 / r^4
31
What effect does vasoconstriction have on resistance and flow?
Increases resistance and decreases flow
32
What effect does vasodilation have on resistance and flow?
Decreases resistance and increases flow
33
What other factors besides radius affect resistance?
Viscosity and length
34
Where is the highest pressure found in the circulatory system?
Aorta (~120 mmHg systolic)
35
Where is the steepest drop in pressure observed in the circulatory system?
Arterioles
36
Where is the lowest pressure found in the circulatory system?
Right atrium (~0–5 mmHg)
37
What do shock states involve regarding perfusion?
Decreased perfusion due to inadequate ΔP or increased resistance
38
Fill in the blank: Small changes in radius produce ______ changes in resistance.
exponential
39
True or False: Increased resistance always leads to increased flow.
False
40
What is the clinical approximation formula for Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)?
MAP = DBP + 1/3(SBP - DBP)
41
What is the physiological formula for Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)?
MAP = CO × TPR
42
What does CO stand for in the context of MAP?
Cardiac Output
43
How is Cardiac Output (CO) calculated?
CO = HR × SV
44
What does HR and SV stand for in the Cardiac Output formula?
* HR: Heart Rate
* SV: Stroke Volume
45
What does TPR represent in the MAP formula?
Total Peripheral Resistance
46
What is the minimum MAP value needed for adequate organ perfusion?
≥ 65 mmHg
47
What conditions can reduce MAP and lead to organ dysfunction?
* Sepsis
* Hypovolemia
* Heart failure
48
In ICU settings, what is used to maintain target MAP?
Vasopressors
49
Which vasopressor is commonly used to maintain target MAP?
Norepinephrine
50
What type of receptors are α1-adrenergic receptors?
Vascular smooth muscle
## Footnote
These receptors mediate vasoconstriction.
51
What is the effect of α1-adrenergic receptors on blood vessels?
Vasoconstriction
## Footnote
This effect is significant in regulating blood pressure.
52
What clinical application targets α1-adrenergic receptors?
α-blockers (e.g., prazosin)
## Footnote
These medications are used to treat hypertension.
53
Where are β2-adrenergic receptors located?
Skeletal muscle, coronary, hepatic vasculature
## Footnote
These locations are crucial for vasodilation effects.
54
What is the effect of β2-adrenergic receptors when activated by epinephrine?
Vasodilation
## Footnote
This occurs during stress responses, such as 'fight or flight'.
55
What are the dose-dependent effects of epinephrine?
β2-mediated vasodilation at low doses; α1-mediated vasoconstriction at high doses
## Footnote
This highlights the importance of dosage in therapeutic contexts.
56
What is the role of Angiotensin II in the cardiovascular system?
Potent vasoconstrictor, stimulates aldosterone release
## Footnote
It is significant in the context of hypertension and fluid balance.
57
What effect does Angiotensin II have in chronic hypertension?
Stimulates vascular remodeling
## Footnote
This remodeling contributes to the pathophysiology of hypertension.
58
What is the function of Vasopressin (ADH) at the V1 receptor?
Vasoconstriction
## Footnote
This action aids in regulating blood pressure.
59
What does the V2 receptor of Vasopressin promote?
Water reabsorption in the kidney
## Footnote
This helps to maintain fluid balance in the body.
60
What is the purpose of the Baroreceptor Reflex?
Maintains short-term blood pressure stability
## Footnote
It is essential for rapid adjustments in blood pressure.
61
What is the Baroreceptor Reflex's role during postural changes?
Rapid adjustment (orthostatic reflex)
## Footnote
This reflex helps prevent dizziness when standing up.
62
What is the myogenic mechanism of autoregulation?
↑ Pressure → stretch → reflex contraction → stabilizes flow.
## Footnote
Important in renal, cerebral, and coronary circulations.
63
What factors lead to metabolic regulation and vasodilation?
↓ O₂, ↑ CO₂, ↑ H⁺, ↑ K⁺, adenosine.
## Footnote
Matches blood flow to metabolic demand (e.g., during exercise).
64
What is Nitric Oxide (NO) synthesized from?
L-arginine.
## Footnote
Synthesized by eNOS.
65
What is the effect of Nitric Oxide on smooth muscle?
Activates guanylate cyclase → ↑ cGMP → smooth muscle relaxation.
66
What occurs in endothelial dysfunction regarding Nitric Oxide?
Inhibited, promoting vasoconstriction.
67
What is endothelin and its role?
Potent vasoconstrictor; upregulated in heart failure and pulmonary HTN.
68
What is the function of prostacyclin (PGI₂)?
Inhibits platelet aggregation and causes vasodilation.
69
True or False: Endothelial dysfunction is a hallmark of atherosclerosis, diabetes, and HTN.
True.
70
Fill in the blank: Endothelial dysfunction promotes _______.
vasoconstriction.
71
What are the high-pressure receptors involved in the baroreceptor reflex?
Carotid sinus (CN IX) and aortic arch (CN X)
## Footnote
These receptors are crucial for detecting changes in blood pressure.
72
What happens to baroreceptor firing when blood pressure increases?
Increased BP → ↑ baroreceptor firing → ↑ parasympathetic (vagal) tone, ↓ sympathetic tone → ↓ HR and vasodilation
## Footnote
This mechanism helps reduce blood pressure.
73
What is the response of the baroreceptor reflex to decreased blood pressure?
Decreased BP → ↓ firing → ↑ sympathetic tone → ↑ HR, contractility, vasoconstriction
## Footnote
This response aims to increase blood pressure.
74
What do the chemoreceptors in the carotid and aortic bodies respond to?
Sensitive to ↓ pO₂, ↑ pCO₂, ↓ pH
## Footnote
These changes trigger an increase in ventilation and sympathetic tone.
75
What is the effect of the chemoreceptor reflex on ventilation?
Increases ventilation and sympathetic tone
## Footnote
This response is vital for addressing changes in blood gas levels.
76
What are cardiopulmonary reflexes associated with?
Low-pressure baroreceptors in atria and pulmonary vessels
## Footnote
These reflexes help regulate volume status and ADH release.
77
Fill in the blank: Increased blood pressure leads to _______ tone and decreased heart rate.
parasympathetic (vagal)
## Footnote
This is part of the baroreceptor reflex mechanism.
78
True or False: The chemoreceptor reflex decreases sympathetic tone.
False
## Footnote
The chemoreceptor reflex actually increases sympathetic tone.
79
What is the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)?
A hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
80
What triggers the release of Renin?
↓ perfusion, ↓ Na⁺, or sympathetic activation.
81
What does Renin convert Angiotensinogen into?
Angiotensin I.
82
What enzyme converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II?
ACE (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme).
83
List the effects of Angiotensin II.
* Vasoconstriction
* Aldosterone release → Na⁺ retention
* ADH release
* ↑ Thirst via hypothalamus
84
What is the role of Aldosterone?
Increases Na⁺ and water reabsorption, K⁺ excretion.
85
Where does Aldosterone act in the nephron?
On distal nephron (principal cells).
86
What is the overall contribution of Aldosterone?
Contributes to volume expansion.
87
What is ADH also known as?
Vasopressin.
88
Where is ADH released from?
Posterior pituitary.
89
How does ADH promote water reabsorption?
Inserts aquaporin-2 channels in the collecting duct.
90
What is Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)?
A hormone secreted by atria in response to stretch.
91
What are the effects of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)?
* Promotes natriuresis
* Vasodilation
* Inhibits RAAS
92
What happens during chronic baroreceptor resetting?
Baroreceptors become less sensitive in sustained hypertension.
93
True or False: Chronic baroreceptor resetting leads to a failure to suppress high BP.
True.
94
What is the definition of Normal blood pressure according to the 2023 ACC/AHA Guidelines?
SBP <120 and DBP <80
95
What is the blood pressure range for Elevated blood pressure?
SBP 120–129 and DBP <80
96
What are the blood pressure values for Stage 1 Hypertension?
SBP 130–139 and DBP 80–89
97
What defines Stage 2 Hypertension?
SBP ≥140 and DBP ≥90
98
What percentage of hypertension cases are classified as Primary (Essential) Hypertension?
~90–95%
99
What are some multifactorial causes of Primary Hypertension?
* Genetic
* Dietary sodium
* Sympathetic overactivity
* Endothelial dysfunction
100
Name two causes of Secondary Hypertension.
* Renal artery stenosis
* CKD
101
List three other conditions that can cause Secondary Hypertension.
* Pheochromocytoma
* Cushing’s
* Hyperaldosteronism
* OSA
102
What are the non-modifiable risk factors for hypertension?
* Age
* Race (↑ in African Americans)
* Genetics
103
Identify three modifiable risk factors for hypertension.
* Obesity
* High salt intake
* Inactivity
* Alcohol
* Stress
104
True or False: Obesity is a non-modifiable risk factor for hypertension.
False
105
Fill in the blank: Primary Hypertension accounts for approximately _______ of cases.
[90–95%]
106
What is the minimum number of readings required to diagnose hypertension?
≥2 readings on ≥2 separate visits
107
What are the recommended methods for confirming a diagnosis of hypertension?
Ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) or Home BP Monitoring (HBPM)
108
What are the target organ damages associated with hypertension?
* Cardiac: LVH (ECG, echo), CHF
* Renal: Elevated creatinine, proteinuria
* CNS: Stroke, cognitive decline
* Ophthalmic: Hypertensive retinopathy
109
What laboratory tests are used to identify secondary causes of hypertension?
* TSH
* Aldosterone/renin ratio
* Catecholamines
110
What imaging is recommended for evaluating secondary causes of hypertension?
111
What is the first-line treatment approach for elevated or stage 1 hypertension without ASCVD risk?
Non-pharmacologic
112
When is pharmacologic treatment indicated for hypertension?
* Stage 2 HTN
* Stage 1 with ASCVD or 10-year risk ≥10%
113
What is the primary effect of thiazide diuretics?
↓ volume and TPR
## Footnote
Example: hydrochlorothiazide
114
What do ACE inhibitors inhibit?
Ang II synthesis
## Footnote
Example: lisinopril
115
What are some cautions associated with ACE inhibitors?
* Cough
* Angioedema
* Hyperkalemia
* Contraindicated in pregnancy
116
What do ARBs stand for?
Ang II receptor blockers
## Footnote
Example: losartan
117
What is the effect of dihydropyridines?
Vasodilation
## Footnote
Example: amlodipine
118
What is the effect of non-DHP calcium channel blockers?
↓ HR and contractility
## Footnote
Example: verapamil
119
What is the primary effect of beta-blockers?
Decrease CO
## Footnote
Used in CAD, HF; Example: metoprolol
120
What is the effect of alpha-blockers?
↓ TPR
## Footnote
Not first-line; Example: doxazosin
121
What are direct vasodilators known to cause?
Reflex tachycardia
## Footnote
Examples: hydralazine, minoxidil
122
What is the primary effect of central alpha-agonists?
↓ sympathetic outflow
## Footnote
Risk of rebound HTN; Example: clonidine
123
What is a complication of chronic hypertension related to the cardiovascular system?
LV hypertrophy → HFpEF
## Footnote
HFpEF stands for Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction.
124
What cardiovascular event can result from coronary artery disease due to chronic hypertension?
MI
## Footnote
MI stands for Myocardial Infarction.
125
What are two potential complications of chronic hypertension related to the aorta?
Aortic dissection, aneurysms
## Footnote
Aortic dissection and aneurysms can lead to life-threatening conditions.
126
What renal complication can arise from chronic hypertension?
Glomerulosclerosis → CKD → ESRD
## Footnote
CKD stands for Chronic Kidney Disease and ESRD stands for End-Stage Renal Disease.
127
What cerebrovascular complications are associated with chronic hypertension?
Stroke (ischemic and hemorrhagic), vascular dementia
## Footnote
Both types of strokes can have significant and lasting impacts on health.
128
What ocular complication can result from chronic hypertension?
Hypertensive retinopathy (AV nicking, cotton wool spots)
## Footnote
AV nicking refers to the alteration of the retinal blood vessels.
129
What dietary approach is recommended as a first-line lifestyle modification for hypertension?
DASH diet: ↑ fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy; ↓ sodium, saturated fat
## Footnote
DASH stands for Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension.
130
What is the recommended sodium intake for individuals managing chronic hypertension?
<1.5–2.3g/day
## Footnote
Reducing sodium intake is crucial for blood pressure management.
131
How much can weight loss impact blood pressure?
1 mmHg per 1 kg lost; 5–20 mmHg for 10 kg
## Footnote
Weight loss can significantly reduce blood pressure levels.
132
What is the recommended amount of physical activity per week for hypertension management?
30 min/day, ≥5 days/week
## Footnote
Regular physical activity is essential for overall cardiovascular health.
133
What is the recommended limit for alcohol consumption for individuals with chronic hypertension?
Limit to 1–2 drinks/day
## Footnote
Moderation in alcohol consumption can help manage blood pressure.
134
What lifestyle modification can reduce cardiovascular risk independent of blood pressure?
Tobacco cessation
## Footnote
Quitting smoking greatly benefits cardiovascular health.
135
What methods may help with stress reduction and compliance in managing hypertension?
CBT, mindfulness
## Footnote
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and mindfulness practices can enhance overall well-being.
