Week 2 Flashcards
(195 cards)
1
Q
What did Constantine’s support for Christianity do? (Cameron)
A
“The problem centres on his support for Christianity, which fundamentally changed the fortunes of the Christian church and may well be responsible for its later history as a world religion.”
2
Q
What is our main source for Constantine?
A
“Our main contemporary source, Eusebius of Caesarea, was the author of a Church History which turned into a glorification of Constantine, and later became Constantine’s panegyrist in his Life of Constantine.” (Cameron)
3
Q
Who was Constantine’s father?
A
“Born in AD 272 or 273, his father was Constantius, yet another Illyrian soldier who had risen to praetorian prefect and Caesar to Maximian, and who had been made Augustus on the latter’s abdication in AD 305.” (Cameron)
4
Q
Who was Constantius?
A
Caesar to Maximian, Augustus in 305 AD
5
Q
When was Constantius made Caesar?
A
March 293 AD
6
Q
When did Constantine become Augustus?
A
25 July 306 AD
7
Q
What was the context of Constantine becoming emperor?
A
“he found his father about to cross the Channel, and went with him to York, where on the latter’s death Constantine was proclaimed Augustus on 25 July, AD 306 by his father’s troops.” (Cameron)
8
Q
Who was Maximinus Daia?
A
Nephew of Galerius Augustus, and his Caesar from 505-310 AD.
9
Q
Who became emperors after Diocletian and Maximian abdicated?
A
The two former Caesars, Constantius and Galerius.
10
Q
Who was passed over to be the new Caesars of Constantius and Galerius?
A
The two sons of the new emperors
11
Q
Who were the two sons of the new emperors that were passed over for the position of caesar?
A
Constantine and Maxentius
12
Q
Who became the new caesars instead of Constantine and Maxentius?
A
Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daia
13
Q
Who did Constantine defeat at the Battle of Milvian Bridge?
A
Emperor Maxentius
14
Q
When was the Battle of Milvian Bridge?
A
312 AD
15
Q
Who was Maxentius passed over for as Caesar to Galerius?
A
Valerius Severus
16
Q
What was the Battle of Milvian Bridge depicted as and where?
A
“The battle was depicted as a great defeat of tyranny by justice, as is recorded on the inscription on the Arch of Constantine, still standing near the Colosseum in Rome and erected for Constantine’s decennalia (tenth anniversary) in AD 315” (Cameron)
17
Q
What did Constantine’s defeat of Maxentius mean for the empire?
A
“The defeat of Maxentius left Constantine in control of the west.” (Cameron)
18
Q
When did Constantine become sole emperor?
A
324 AD
19
Q
When did Licinius become emperor?
A
November 308 AD, being made Augustus by Galerius
20
Q
What battle occurred between Constantine and Licinius?
A
Battle of Chrysopolis 324 AD
21
Q
Did Constantine continue or stop Diocletian’s reforms?
A
“He also continued and consolidated Diocletian’s provincial and administrative arrangements, with the significant alteration that the praetorian prefects now lost their military functions” (Cameron)
22
Q
In which way did Constantine depart from Diocletian’s reforms?
A
“According to Eusebius (VCIV. 1), Constantine greatly expanded the senatorial order, bestowing senatorial rank without the obligation to reside in Rome and attend meetings of the Senate itself.” (Cameron)
23
Q
How did Constantine’s legislation compare to Diocletian’s?
A
“Constantine’s legislation continued the tendencies already apparent under Diocletian, by further restricting the freedom of movement of decurions and coloni. “ (Cameron)
24
Q
How might Constantine have viewed the Christian God?
A
“it is very possible that he initially saw the Christian God in the same light as Apollo and Sol Invictus, as a protector who would grant favours in return for his own attachment” (Cameron)
25
Until when did Constantine continue to put Sol Invictus on his coins?
320-321 AD
26
Despite the images placed on his coins, what did Constantine write in his letter of AD 313 exempting Christian clergy from curial responsibilities?
"he clearly identifies the maintenance of Christianity with the good of the empire, saying that by being so relieved of fiscal demands, they will
'be completely free to serve their own law [i.e. Christianity] at all times. In thus rendering service to the deity, it is evident that they will be making an immense contribution to the welfare of the community.'"
27
Why did Constantine exempt Christian clergy from curial responsibility?
So that they "'be completely free to serve their own law [i.e. Christianity] at all times. In thus rendering service to the deity, it is evident that they will be making an immense contribution to the welfare of the community." (Cameron)
28
How does Averil Cameron describe the impact of Constantine on Christianity in the empire?
"Simply having a Christian emperor on the throne did not bring about mass conversion, and the Christianization of society in general took place only very slowly. But the persecution of Christians was now ended, and the Christian church favoured."
29
How did Constantine refer to himself?
"Constantine liked to refer to himself as 'the bishop of those outside the church', or even as 'the thirteenth apostle', an idea underlined by the plan of his mausoleum in Constantinople, where his own tomb lay surrounded by sarcophagi representing each of the twelve apostles."
30
Was there a relaxing of punishment under Constantine?
"If what is implied is a softening of penalties and a more charitable attitude, both are conspicuously lacking. Constantine's legislation on sexual matters is marked by an extreme harshness, and recourse to barbaric or arcane punishments. Women are allowed to divorce their husbands and retain their dowries only if the husband is a murderer, a sorcerer or a destroyer of tombs"
31
When was the Council of Nicaea?
325 AD
32
What is an Ecumenical Council?
a meeting of bishops and other church authorities to consider and rule on questions of Christian doctrine, administration, discipline
33
When was the first of the seven ecumanical councils, and what was it called?
Council of Nicaea, 325 AD
34
What issue did the Council of Nicaea debate?
"a fundamental issue of doctrine, the definition of the relation of God the Son to God the Father" (Cameron)
35
What did Arius, a priest from Alexandria, argue for at the Council of Nicaea?
That the Son was second to the Father
36
What had Constantine realised by 325 AD?
"By now Constantine had realized that church unity was an essential prerequisite for the Christian empire" (Cameron)
37
What is the significance of the Council of Nicaea?
"the first time the sight of an emperor deferring to them and placing matters of Christian doctrine at the very top of the imperial agenda" (Cameron)
38
What did Constantine start doing after defeating Maxentius?
"Constantine also embarked on a church building programme that made his religious priorities clear for all to see. This began very soon after his defeat of Maxentius with a series of churches at Rome, all built in the period from AD 312 to 325. In deference to existing patterns of Christian worship there, most were erected outside the city walls on sites associated with the veneration of apostles or martyrs." (Cameron)
39
When was the Council of Arles?
314 AD
40
What did Constantine do when convening the Council of Arles?
"great efforts were made to get the highest possible attendance by making the imperial post system (the road system with regular staging posts used for government business) available to the bishops through orders sent out to provincial governors"
41
Why is the Council of Arles (314 AD) not an Eccumenical Council?
"The Council of Aries was a western council, called to deal with a matter arising in Constantine's dominions alone; thus it does not rank as one of the so-called 'ecumenical' councils, held to be binding on the whole church." (Cameron)
42
Which half of the empire did Constantine rule before 324 AD?
The Western half
43
While Constantine ruled the west, who ruled in the East?
Licinius
44
Which council of the church marks the entry of the emperor into church matters?
Council of Arles 314 AD
45
What was Constantine's role at the Council of Nicaea?
"Constantine's role was ambiguous: he attended all the sessions, and his imperial appearance very naturally impressed most of the bishops greatly, but he was careful to defer to their judgement. Though he made it clear what formula he favoured, he evidently wanted the final decision to be reached by majority, and preferably unanimously." (Cameron)
46
Why was the Council of Nicaea a watershed moment?
"For the first time an attempt was made to muster all the bishops together, and it was made clear that the results of the council were to be considered universally binding." (Cameron)
47
What was the inadvertent effect of the Council of Nicaea?
"Paradoxically, the Council of Nicaea, by which Constantine attempted to resolve what he may have seen as minor differences, in practice opened up a process of attempted definition of correct belief which was to cause infinite problems, and to preoccupy church and state for centuries. The Greek word hairesis ('choice') had originally been entirely neutral, simply meaning a set of beliefs or practices. Now, however, 'heresies', deviant beliefs, were catalogued and demonologized, as the church took on an increasingly authoritarian role in defining what was to be regarded as correct." (Cameron)
48
Who was the only emperor in the fourth century to not be a Christian after Constantine?
Emperor Julian 361-363 AD
49
Did Constantine try and persecute pagan practice?
"Contrary to what might be imagined, attempts to outlaw or persecute paganism were the exception rather than the rule. " (Cameron)
50
What did Constantine try and do through the law to supress pagan worship?
"Constantine himself is said by Eusebius to have made a law forbidding sacrifice, and while the law itself does not survive, a similar law of Constantius alludes to it: let superstition cease. Let the madness of sacrifices be exterminated, for if anyone should dare to celebrate sacrifices in violation of the law of our father, the deified Emperor, and of this decree of Our Clemency, let an appropriate punishment and sentence immediately be inflicted on him." (Cameron)
51
Was pagan worship allowed to continue under Constantine?
Yes
52
How do we know Constantine deliberately allowed pagan worship to continue?
"a new temple was built in honour of the imperial family at Hispellum in Italy at the end of Constantine's reign. Sacrifice itself did not stop, and a law promulgated by Theodosius, Arcadius and Honorius was still attempting to forbid it in AD 392" (Cameron)
53
What happened to pagan temples under Constantine?
"Except for a very few cases where there were cult practices objectionable to Christians, pagan temples remained open for most of the time. " (Cameron)
54
What is the legend of Constantine's conversion to history?
"that Constantine saw a cross in the heavens before his victory over Maxentius and converted to Christianity out of gratitude for his success" (Bleckmann)
55
What is the Burnt Column?
A column Constantine had erected in Byzantium, which is said to have protrayed him naked in the image of Sol Invictus.
56
How was Constantine supposed to have been portrayed on the column in Byzantium?
"Constantine was portrayed nude, like a divinity, while a Byzantine chronicle transmits that Constantine also bore a radiate crown, like the sun god" (Bleckmann)
57
What does the Burnt Column signify according to Bleckmann?
"Constantinople, at whose center point this quite ambiguous statue was located, was not conceived as a Christian counterpoint to the pagan Rome"
58
When did Constantine found Constantinople (Byzantium)?
324 AD after defeating Licinius
59
What does invictus mean?
unconquerable
60
What did the title invictus represent?
Association of the emperor with the protective god Sol Invictus
61
After defeating Licinius to become sole emperor, what did Constantine do to his titles?
"After defeating Licinius, his title invictus (unconquerable)– common among emperors of the time but also clearly identifying the emperor with the protective god Sol Invictus– was replaced by the religiously neutral victor (the conqueror)." (Bleckmann)
62
What is the significance of Constantine's title change in 324 AD?
"But the break with the epithet of the old solar deity remains unmistakable" (Bleckmann)
63
When was the medallion of Ticinum minted?
315 AD
64
What is the significance of the medallion of Ticinum?
"The peculiarity of this coin lies, however, in the fact that the presentation of the emperor’s military capacities– on the reverse, Constantine delivers a harangue before the soldiers, and on the obverse, he is shown with armor, horse, and shield– is connected with Christian symbolism for the first time in Roman numismatic history." (Bleckmann)
65
What is the Chrismon (Chi-Rho)?
A symbol for the initials of Christ
66
What was on the helment of Constantine on the medallion of Ticinum?
the Chrismon (Chi-Rho)
67
What was also issued at the same time as the medallion of Ticinum, undermining its Christian significance?
"Moreover, apart from this single coin with Christian symbolism, we have countless unequivocally pagan coins that were issued contemporaneously, for example, the famous Roman coin in which Constantine is portrayed in double profile with his protective deity Sol (Coin 4), very clearly expressing the identification of the emperor with solar religion" (Bleckmann)
68
Why is it significant that the medallion of Ticinum os a medallion?
"We thus have relatively few extant coins– only three exemplars of this sparingly minted issue, which was perhaps aimed at the specific interests of Christian recipients with imperial favor. " (Bleckmann)
69
What did the Edict of Milan do with regards to property?
"permitted the return of possessions confiscated in the Christian persecutions to churches" (Bleckmann)
70
When was the Edict of Milan issued?
313 AD
71
Why might Constantine have appeared more accomodating to Christians after becoming sole emperor according to Bleckmann?
"As sole ruler, Constantine was able to appear less diplomatic toward pagans than he had previously. Above all, with the victory over Licinius he had taken over regions in which Christians constituted a very high percentage of the population and in which they had been much more intensely and mercilessly persecuted than their coreligionists in the west. In this situation, the emperor could not help but favor Christians more clearly and openly than he once had. "
72
What did Constantine's father, Constantius, become in 288?
Praetorian Prefect for Maximian in the West.
73
Who did Constantine's father, Constantius, marry?
Maximian's stepdaughter, Theodora
74
What did Constantius do in the 290s to his son?
"In the 290s, his father, operating in the western empire, farmed Constantine out to the eastern rulers Diocletian and Galerius." (Lenski)
75
Why did Constantius send Constantine to fight under Diocletian and Galerius?
"This was intended in part to initiate his son’s military training, in part also as a security for his own loyalty to the eastern Tetrarchs." (Lenski)
76
Who did Constantius take as Caesar in 305 AD instead of his son?
Severus
77
Who did Galerius choose as his Caesar in 305 AD?
Maximin Daia
78
Why did Constantine have reason to feel annoyed at Maximin Daia being chosen as Caesar?
Maximin was Galerius's nephew, meaning dynastic reasons had played a part in his decision but not in his father's, Contantius, who had chosen to ignore Constantine
79
When did his troops make Constantine emperor?
25 July 306
80
What was wrong with the manner in which Constantine was made Augustus, and what did it lead to?
"But this was by no means the manner in which the Tetrarchy was meant to function. From the perspective of the other Tetrarchs, and indeed of many contemporaries, Constantine was a usurper." (Lenski)
81
What did Galerius insist on after hearing on Constantine's usurpation in 306?
"he insisted on his demotion to the rank of Caesar and the consequent promotion of Severus to Augustus" (Lenski)
82
What did Maxentius, the son of Maximian, do after hearing of Constantine's raising to the purple?
"No longer content to remain on the sidelines, Maxentius persuaded a coterie of imperial guardsmen to gather on October 28, 306, six miles north of the city on the Via Labicana, and acclaim him emperor (Coin10), albeit with the archaizing title “princeps” (prince)." (Lenski)
83
What did Maxentius do in October 306?
He convinced some soldiers to raise him to the purple.
84
What did Maxentius get his father to do in October 306?
"At the same time, Maxentius also convinced his father, the ex-Augustus Maximian, then living in retirement in Lucania (southern Italy), to resume the purple robe of empire and join his cause." (Lenski)
85
What did Constantine do to strengthen his alliance with Maximian after he had returned to the position of Augustus?
"Maximian had begun courting Constantine in the aftermath of his return to power in 306 and even came north of the Alps in 307 to strengthen the alliance by marrying his young daughter Fausta to Constantine" (Lenski)
86
What did Maximian grant to Constantine after he married his daughter Fausta?
Permission to take the title of Augustus after Galerius had refused him
87
What did a panagyrist invent in 310 to strengthen Constantine's claim as emperor?
"For an ancestral relationship links you with the deified Claudius, who was the first to restore the discipline of the Roman Empire when it was disordered and in ruins, and destroyed on land and sea by huge numbers of Goths who had burst forth from the straits of the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube." (in Lenski)
88
Who was the fabricated relation of Constantine?
"The ancestor was Claudius Gothicus, the beloved emperor who had rescued the empire from a Gothic invasion before his premature death in 270" (Lenski)
89
What happened to Constantine on his return from beating Maximian?
"While Constantine was returning to Trier after having defeated Maximian, he had turned off the main road to visit a temple of Apollo, probably at Grand, Vosges. There he claimed to have seen, to his amazement, not just the god’s temple but the god himself:
For you saw, I believe, O Constantine, your Apollo, accompanied by Victory, offering you laurel wreaths, each one of which carries a portent of thirty years." (Lenski)
90
When did Constantine defeat Maximian and force him to commit suicide?
310 AD
91
What did the vision Constantine saw in 310 AD lead him to do?
"The fact that the vision occurred near the temple of Apollo and apparently in broad daylight was interpreted to mean that it had been sent by the god of the sun. Not surprisingly, then, from 310 onwards Constantine began trumpeting the idea that he had special connections to Apollo or to an even more popular sun god among previous emperors, Sol (Greek Helios)." (Lenski)
92
When did Galerius extend the great Persecution until in the east?
311
93
What was Constantine's approach to religion?
"Constantine, meanwhile, had little stomach for religious persecution. As a young soldier in the company of Diocletian and Galerius, he had witnessed the beginnings of the Great Persecution in person. His father, Caesar in the west at the time, had given only halting support to the violence and apparently never murdered Christians. Thus when Constantine was acclaimed emperor, one of his first measures was to proclaim religious freedom for Christians. Persecution, he had seen, could only sow discord and could never compel consent. Despite his paganism, despite his Apolline visions, Constantine self-identified early as a friend of Christians." (Lenski)
94
What does Lenski say about Constantine's vision in 310 AD?
"Here it suffices to say that Constantine believed he had seen a divine vision that, at the time, he believed to have come from the god of the sun"
95
How did Constantine present his defeat of Maxentius?
"Yet his propaganda only barely admitted this grim truth, for the panegyrics, histories, and inscriptions of the day portrayed Maxentius not as a rival emperor but rather as a cruel tyrant from whom the city and people of Rome were glad to be freed." (Lenski)
96
Where can we see Constantine's portrayal of the defeat of Maxentius as a liberation?
On the victory arch in Rome that says: "To the liberator of the city, and the establisher of peace"
97
What did Constantine claim to have seen in a dream?
"At some point not long before the battle of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine was visited by a dream in which
he was advised to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his soldiers and then engage in battle. He did as he was commanded and by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round, he marked Christ on their shields" (Lenski)
98
What does Lenski argue Constantine's dream signify?
That he had converted to Christianity
99
What is the only instance of Constantine associating himself with Christianity before the 320s?
medallion of Ticinum, 315 AD
100
In what way did Constantine demonstrate his Christianity in the months after defeating Maxentius?
"On the contrary, in numerous ways he made it abundantly clear that he was now a Christian. Most obvious to the Romans, in the three months he spent in the city following his victory, was his initiation of the construction of a number of massive Christian churches, the most important of which– the Lateran Basilica" (Lenski)
101
What did the meeting between Constantine and Licinius result in in 313 AD in Milan?
"The result is the so-called Edict of Milan, actually preserved as a letter by Licinius to a governor ordering not only that Christians be granted freedom of worship but also that any property confiscated from them be restored. Within half a year of converting, then, Constantine was promoting his new religion empire wide." (Lenski)
102
What did Licinius do before engaging in battle with Maximin Daia?
"As the two approached battle in May of 313, Licinius put to use publicity tactics similar to those employed recently by Constantine. He claimed to have seen a vision of the Supreme God (summus deus) in a dream and commanded his troops to memorize and recite a prayer conveyed in the dream before engaging battle." (Lenski)
103
In what year did Licinius defeat Maximin Daia and take sole control of the eastern empire?
313 AD
104
What happened to the tetrarchy in 313 AD?
After Licinius defeated Maximin Daia, it meant the end of the Tetrarchy: Licinius ruled in the east and Constantine in the west.
105
What did Constantine do to try and create a dynastic succession in 315 AD?
He sent his brother in law, Bassianus, to Licinius for his approval to make his Caesar
106
What did Licinius do in response to Bassianus potentially being made Caesar?
"Licinius, who took the proposal amiss, had Bassianus’s own brother Senecio arm Bassianus against Constantine instead. Constantine was thus forced to defeat and kill Bassianus, after which he ordered Licinius to turn over Senecio as well. Licinius refused and began having statues of Constantine desecrated in the city of Emona (Ljubljana), on the border between their realms. " (Lenski)
107
Who was made caesars to Constantine and Licinius in 317 AD?
Constantine's "sons Crispus and Constantine II (Coin 17), along with Licinius’s homonymous son" (Lenski)
108
What did the elevation of Constantine's and Licnius's sons mean for the tetrarchy?
"Constantine and Licinius were thus pushing things ever further from the Tetrarchic model and back toward dynasty. " (Lenski)
109
What did Licnius start doing in 320 AD?
"Relations with Licinius of course remained tense, and things only grew worse when Licinius began, c. 320, taking measures against Christians that could be construed as persecution: expelling Christians from imperial service, forbidding synods, and perhaps even condoning executions." (Lenski)
110
What show the souring of relations between Constantine and Licinius in 321 and 322?
"By 321 he and Licinius began refusing to recognize one another’s annually appointed consuls, and in 322 Licinius refused to distribute coinage advertising Constantine’s Sarmatian victory." (Lenski)
111
What was the most signifiant thing Constantine did after becoming sole emperor?
"Almost immediately he began ushering in the profound changes that would leave a Constantinian stamp on Roman history for centuries to come. Chief among these was his choice to refound Byzantium as his eponymous capital of Constantinople. " (Lenski)
112
Was the founding of a capital by Constantine (Constantinople) unique?
No, it was common practice for emperors
113
In addition to building churches in Constantinople, what else did Constantine build in his new capital?
"In gestures typical of his polyvalent religious politics, the Christian emperor even built or rebuilt several temples, and in the middle of his forum he erected a column of porphyry featuring at its pinnacle a statue of himself holding a globe and scepter and bedizened with sunrays projecting from its head (Figs. 2 and 3). No observer could escape the visual parallel with the standard image of Sol Invictus, Constantine’s favored pagan god from 310 onward, who appears regularly on Constantinian coins down to 325 (Coins 4, 14, and 15). Constantinople was thus hardly a water tight Christian levee against the receding tides of paganism." (Lenski)
114
What complaints about Constantinople did Pagans have?
"Pagans did, however, find room to grumble that many of the statues that adorned the new capital were pilfered from their shrines, and much of the wealth used in its construction was confiscated from pagan temple treasuries." (Lenski)
115
What was decisided at the Council of Nicaea?
"Christ was unequivocally uncreated and of the same nature as the Father!" (Lenski)
116
What did the Arians believe?
That God and Jesus were not the same, and that God had created jesus as his son (this is the position rejected at Nicaea).
117
What did Constantine do on his deathbed?
"he received baptism at the hands of the Arianizing bishop Eusebius" (Lenski)
118
What is significant about Constantine's death?
That and Arian bishop has baptised him
119
When did Constantine die?
May 337 AD
120
What did Constantius II do with his father's body?
"Constantius, however, chose to entomb it in Constantinople in Constantine’s new Constantius, however, chose to entomb it in Constantinople in Constantine’s new Mausoleum of Holy Apostles after an elaborate Christian funeral. There it received its place amidst the remains of Andrew and Luke and among cenotaphs for the remaining apostles, thus making Constantine into something of a thirteenth apostle." (Lenski)
121
Where was Constantine buried?
Mausoleum of Holy Apostles
122
What did Constantine's burial make him?
The thirteenth apostle
123
What does polyvalent mean?
Belief or worship of more than one god
124
125
What account of Constantine's conversion to Christianity did lactantius give us in 315 AD?
"Constantine was advised in a dream to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his soldiers and then engage in battle. He did as he was commanded and by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round, he marked Christ on their shields." (Drake)
126
What is Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea's account of Constantine's conversion?
"About the time of the midday sun, when day was just turning, he said he saw with his own eyes, up in the sky and resting over the sun, a cross-shaped trophy formed from light, and a text attached to it which said, “By this conquer.”
127
When did Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea write his account of Constantine's conversion, and when did this conversion supposedly take place?
"It was written after Constantine's death in 337, and the conversion was in 312 AD.
128
Where is Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea's account of Constantine's found?
In his book, The Life of Constantine
129
How does Drake describe Eusebius' account of conversion?
"Properly read, Eusebius’s text is a primer on late Roman imperial ideology"
130
Why is Eusebius's account of conversion an example of imperial ideology?
"From the start, Roman emperors had always performed religious duties as pontifex maximus (head of the Roman state religion); symbolically, the title of Augustus–a word with vague connotations of prosperity ensured by the gods– was even more significant, for it added an aura of sacrosanctity to their person." (Drake)
131
How did Roman view the influence of the Gods?
"Christians and pagans alike in that world believed in a deity who did intervene, and did so with disturbing regularity. This deity took sides, as did the malevolent deities who intervened just as frequently on behalf of Rome’s enemies. In such an environment, ensuring divine support was prudence, not politics." (Drake)
132
What appears on a commemorative medallion issued only months after the battle of the Milvian Bridge?
Constantine appears in twin profile with Apollo, a god tied to sun worship
133
What are the conclusions usually reached in accounts of Constantine's conversion and what do they lack?
"Instead, the conversion story leads to the conclusion either that the church became immediately submissive to his will or that he himself was so awed by the experience that he slavishly delivered the empire to the church. Both alternatives ignore the great diversity in the number and condition of Christian communities that prevailed in the early fourth century, some of which did not define themselves in a way that precluded being both “Christians” and “Romans.”" (Drake)
134
Where did the Donatist controversy take place?
North Africa
135
What was the Donatist split about?
"The subject was clergy who had become tainted during the persecution by surrendering sacred books and objects to imperial officials. This made them, literally, “traitors” (traditores in Latin, people who hand things over). All sides agreed that such individuals had to be dismissed from office. The problem concerned acts that they had performed while in office. The position of the hierarchy in Carthage was that sacraments remained valid, even if administered by tainted clergy. But a rigorist group that came to be called the Donatists after their most tenacious leader, the priest Donatus of Casae Nigrae, insisted that the sacraments themselves– and particularly baptism– were tainted and had to be administered anew. " (Drake)
136
What did the Donatists do in their dispute about traitors?
"the Donatists appealed to Constantine in the spring of 313 for help in settling their dispute." (Drake)
137
What did Constantine do in response to the Donatists petition?
"Constantine turns the case over to the bishop of Rome, Miltiades, informing the pontiff that he has arranged for Caecilian, the accused bishop of Carthage, to be brought to Rome along with ten of the bishops accusing him and ten others chosen by himself for his defense." (Drake)
138
When did the Donatists appeal to Constantine?
313 AD
139
Did the Donatists want their case heard by the Bishop of Rome?
No, they want it heard by Bishops from Gaul because they were less tainted during the persecution as they lived under the rule of Constantine's father.
140
What compromise did Constantine make in dealing with the Donatist's petition?
Although he turned the matter over the the Bishop of Rome, Miltiades, he also invited 3 bishops from Gaul to come and take part as a concession to the Donatist's wishes.
141
Why was the Council of Arles called in 314 AD?
The Donatists petition Constantine again after Miltiades found Caecilian innocent the previous year.
142
How privileges did Constantine grant to bishops coming from across the empire to the Council of Arles?
"His action instantly elevated the status of such a meeting and changed its nature. A surviving letter shows that he put the public post at the disposal of the bishops he summoned, a move that instantly guaranteed them not only swifter and more comfortable travel but also higher status and visibility." (Drake)
143
What did Constantine say in a letter in 324 AD after defeating Licinius about religious toleration?
"However let no one use what he has received by inner conviction as a means to harm his neighbor. What each had seen and understood, he must use, if possible, to help the other; but if that is impossible, the matter should be dropped." (Drake)
144
What did the Edict of Milan do? (Drake)
"Commonly known as the “Edict of Milan” – even though in the form we have it, it was not an edict and was not issued in Milan – the document legalizes Christianity and promises restoration of property seized during Diocletian’s persecution. "
145
What does the Edict of Milan say about toleration in general to religious belief?
"In accordance with salutary and most correct reasoning we ought to follow the policy of regarding this opportunity [given the Christians] as one not to be denied to anyone at all, whether he wished to give his mind to the observances of the Christians or to that religion which he felt was most fitting to himself."
146
What did the Edict of Milan underlay? (Drake)
"This policy underlay his decision to forgo force in dealing with the Donatists and to enjoin Christians in the east from physical attacks on nonbelievers. "
147
Why was correct belief important to an emperor? (Drake)
"Taking into account universal belief in the direct role divinity played in human affairs and the direct role the emperor played in ensuring the goodwill of that divinity, it is not difficult to understand how, in short order, enforcing correct belief became the prime mission of the Christian emperor."
148
What was COnstantine's initial response to the Arian dispute, as he laid out in a letter the the bishop of Alexandria? (Drake)
"Here Constantine demonstrates that theology was not his primary concern. The issue dividing them, he says repeatedly, was a “trivial” matter, a “very silly question.” It should never have been broached in the first place, but now that it had been, both should realize that this “slight difference” should not be the cause of either heresy or schism. Instead, what mattered to Constantine was that division had been created: “the most holy people were divided in two and forsook the concord of the common body.”"
149
What was Constantine's aim with regards to religion? (Drake)
"As with the Donatists, Constantine hoped to achieve unity and to avoid public disorder. More than that, the letter shows that at least a dozen years after his personal commitment to Christianity, Constantine still envisioned it as a faith that could produce “one united judgment in reference to God” without stumbling over such trivial matters as the nature of Christ and the Trinity."
150
What do people point to to suggest Constantine wasnt a big supporter of Christianity as he claimed? (Drake)
"He had held a favored position at Diocletian’s court, for instance, and despite eloquent condemnations of the persecution after the fact, nothing indicates that Constantine opposed it especially strenuously at the time. Early in his reign, he had formed a dynastic alliance with the persecutor Maximian, and in the ten years that he had been in sole control of the west, he had taken no active steps to suppress traditional religion."
151
What was the outcome of the Council of Nicaea? (Drake)
"Eventually, Constantine oversaw and sanctioned the creation of a creed that equated the Father and Son by using the extremely controversial term homoousios (of the same substance). Though the term, never found in scripture, soon provoked a vigorous and protracted new debate, it was accepted at Nicaea by all of the bishops except two, who were deposed and sent into exile, along with Arius himself, who, since he was not a bishop, had no say in the decision. "
152
What challenge did Constantine face after gaining control of the eastern empire? (Christopher Kelly)
"The challenge Constantine and his advisers faced was, of course, not how to “Romanise” or “civilise” the eastern provinces-the very idea would have seemed farcical–but rather how to control and exploit its resources."
153
What is the Notitia Dignitatum (Kelly)
"The Notitia Dignitatum is, as its full title grandly proclaims, “a list of all ranks and administrative positions both civil and military.” The surviving version of what, in fact, is little more than a simple check list of offices offers a fairly comprehensive overview of the empire’s military and administrative establishments in the eastern half of the empire at the end of the fourth century, and somewhat later, and more haphazardly, for the west. "
154
What were the provinces of the empire grouped into?
twelve dioceses
155
What were dioceses grouped into?
four praetorian prefectures
156
What were the four praetorian prefectures? (Kelly)
"Gaul (which included Britain and Spain), Italy (which included Africa and the western Balkans), Illyricum (roughly Crete, modern Greece, and the Balkan states to the north of Macedonia) and the east."
157
Who was in control of a diocese?
A Vicarius
158
What did Constantine retain after taking over the eastern empire?
The system of dioceses and praetorian prefectures that Diocletian had set up
159
How does kelly describe the role of praetorian prefect?
" He acted as “a kind of grand vizier, the emperor’s second in command, wielding a wide authority in almost every sphere of government, military and judicial, financial and general administration. He was the emperor’s chief of staff, adjutant-general, and quartermaster-general rolled into one.”"
160
Even though Constantine retained the system that Diocletian set up, what did he do to the praetorian prefects? (Kelly)
"The influence of the praetorian prefects was also circumscribed by the development and consolidation of a set of officials (and their staffs) principally associated with the emperor himself. "
161
What positions did Constantine create to weaken the position of the praetorian prefect?
the imperial quaestor and the magister officiorum
162
What was the imperial quaestor responsible for? (Kelly)
"The quaestor was responsible for drafting legislation and the responses to petitions and letters addressed to the emperor."
163
How does Kelly describe Constantine's impact on imperial administration throughout his rule?
"Whatever the precise order of these reforms or their details, the twenty-five years from 312 to 337 saw the emergence of a range of high-ranking officials whose areas of responsibility were systematically consolidated and more clearly defined."
164
What did Constantine's imperial reforms mean for him? (Kelly)
"Overlapping responsibilities in sensitive areas also helped to ensure that senior office holders might police the actions of their colleagues. Most importantly, it was now more likely that an emperor would be surrounded by a series of advisers–each of whom might jockey for influence–rather than remain crucially dependent on one or two alone."
165
Was Constantine's reform a continuation or break with tetrarchic rule? (Kelly)
"The fragmentation of the praetorian prefects’ vast area of responsibility, the foreshadowing of regional prefectures, and the institution and promotion of a series of high-ranking military and civil offices represented both a definite break with the structures of Tetrarchic government and a coherent attempt to deal with the new demands of ruling a reunified empire."
166
How does Eusebius describe Constantine's reforms?
"Some received money in abundance, others goods; some acquired posts as prefects, others senatorial rank...some were appointed comites of the first order, others of the second, others of the third. Similarly many thousands more shared honours as clarissimi or with a wide range of other titles; for in order to promote more persons the Emperor contrived different distinctions."
167
Why was the creation of more imperial offices important for Constantine's rule? (Kelly)
"Aside from the Constantine’s often lavish funding of individuals and cities– however this should be judged or joked about– the many concessions granted government officials also offered clear proof of the signal benefits of close association with the imperial centre. Palatine officials were, in the words of one of Constantine’s own laws, “deluged with privileges.” Most valuably, they were released, as were their sons and grandsons, from any obligation to serve on the municipal council in their home-towns and from the considerable financial liabilities such office-holding entailed."
168
How were the new offices of state that Constsantine created made to look? (Kelly)
"In terms of status, privilege, and position, involvement with central government was made increasingly and deliberately attractive."
169
Why did Constantine need to make new offices for people after taking the eastern empire? (Kelly)
"It was on the continued willingness of local elites to cooperate with a conquering power that the lasting success of Constantine’s regime significantly depended. "
170
What did Constantine's Christianity mean for his rule with regards to the views of his subjects? (Lenski)
"Nevertheless, in the period following his conversion, he was operating in a theological space that was noticeably at odds with the horizons of understanding of the majority of the social collective. Where in previous centuries a common set of assumptions about the nature of the divine had been shared between emperor and subjects, Constantine’s conversion put his religious worldview at odds with collective truths shared by most of his subjects—truths about cosmology (Olympian versus Judeo-Christian), ritual (the value of sacrifice and idolatry), and the ology (above all, polytheism). Thus, although his authority to issue normative regulations was accepted as valid, his claims regarding the divine authority that undergirded his imperial authority became open to challenge. "
171
What was peculiar about Constantine's position as Emperor?
His right to rule was generally accepted but his religious beliefs were at odds with most of his people
172
How did Constantine go about bringing his subjects into line with his religious views at times? (Lenski)
"In the face of this disconnect, Constantine could have attempted to assert the validity claims of his religious ideas with imperative speech acts cast in the language of legal obligations that used the threat of sanctions to motivate conformity. Unsurprisingly, in some instances he did just this—at places like Heliopolis, Aphaca, or Aegeae, he actively intervened using legal imperatives prohibiting specific forms of worship and even ordering the destruction of pagan holy sites."
173
Despite using force at times, What does Lenski say was Constantine's favoured method of getting his subjects to accept his Christianity?
"More commonly, however, Constantine engaged his subjects in a dialogue that invited them to use those validity claims that they accepted—his right to rule and to establish a legal framework for civic interaction—in order to test the validity of other claims his subjects may not, initially, have been willing to redeem—that the Christian god was the one true god."
174
How does Lenski summarise Constantine's approach to making Christianity more acceptable?
"Instead, we will focus on Constantine’s efforts to build on existing power relations, existing assumptions about religious and civic ideology, and existing modes of discourse in order to nudge the empire in the direction he had taken by converting."
175
What did Constantine grant to Bishops? (Lenski)
"Apart from the grants of land, buildings, revenues, and provisions he made to their benefit, Constantine also endowed bishops with powers that put them into a new category of civic grandee who outstripped the decurions alongside whom they operated."
176
What powers were Bishops invested with? (Lenski)
"These new benefits included the power to offer judgments in civil cases that were backed up with the enforcement power of the imperial administration, and the power to manumit slaves with full Roman freedom."
177
Who normally exercised the powers Constantine gave to Bishops? (Lenski)
"Both of these were privileges formerly reserved to provincial magistrates, which Constantine then devolved to church leaders who could now operate in the civic arena in ways that placed them above decurions. "
178
What other privileges usually reserved for magistrates did Constantine give to bishops? (Lenski)
"Constantine also granted bishops the right to use the public posting system for travel, again a privilege normally reserved for magistrates. Finally, he gave exemption to all Christian clergy from obligatory curial service."
179
At the same time as building churches, what else was Constantine doing to improve its power? (Lenski)
"At the same time that Constantine was redirecting landed and movable property from cities and temples to Christian churches and building Christian architecture into the urban infrastructure of cities, he was also working to transfer power from traditional civic magistrates to the officers of the church. "
180
In what way did Constantine change civic power? (Lenski)
"redistribution of power at the local level from civic aristocrats and members of the old curial elite to a new class of civic grandee, the bishop"
181
How does Lenski summarise Constantine's effect on civic power?
"Constantine was initiating a trend that would eventually result in the radical transformation of power structures at the local level in all ancient cities."
182
What two powers did Constantine give to bishops when he was in charge of the wesrtern empire? (Lenski)
"Around the same time Constantine was turning bishops into judges of first resort, he also empowered them with the related authority to manumit slaves in their churches in such a way as to bestow on them full Roman citizenship."
183
Where can we find an example of the law allowing bishops to grant citizenship to slaves? (Lenski)
"Our first testimony to this comes with a law preserved only in the Justinian Code and dated June 8, 316."
184
What does Lenski say the ability to free slvaes made bishops?
"By extending the authority to endow freed slaves with full citizenship to bishops, Constantine was thus taking further steps in assimilating these church leaders to magistrates and thus establishing them as the supreme power brokers at the civic level. "
185
Where did manumission by bishops take places and why is this significant? (Lenski)
"Furthermore, because these manumissions had to take place inside churches, he was showcasing these new structures, some built at his own expense and with his encouragement, as seats of civic administration."
186
Other than hearing court cases and freeing slaves, what other benefit did Constantine confer on bishops? (Lenski)
"A similar redistribution of power at the civic level was also enacted with Constantine’s grant of exemption from curial service to bishops"
187
What evidence do we have of Constantine granting exemptions to bishops and what is his justification? (Lenski)
"It is a Greek translation of a letter to the Proconsul of Africa Anullinus from 313 in which Constantine reports that he wishes to reward the servants of the church by exempting them from all public duties in order that they may pay proper attention to God and thus benefit the state. "
188
What was Constantine doing within a year of his conversion in 312 AD? (Lenski)
"Thus, within a year of openly professing his conversion, Constantine was issuing a law valid throughout his western territories granting curial exemption to Christian clergy. "
189
What law did Constantine issue in December 323? (Lenski)
"a law of December 323 that threatens with clubbing any who, the emperor has learned, have compelled ecclesiastics and clerics to perform lustral sacrifices in conjunction with curial celebrations."
190
Why did Constantine need to issue a law in December 323 threatening punishment for those who force bishops to make sacrifice and serve on curia? (Lenski)
"The law was issued from Sirmium—near the border with Licinius’s territory— even as tensions between Constantine and Licinius were reaching their apex, in no small part over Licinius’s increasing harshness against Christian clergy, some of whom he forcibly enrolled into curiae in contravention of Constantine’s grant of exemption. "
191
What was Constantine trying to protect bishops from by excluding them from curial duties? (Lenski)
Performing pagan sacrifices in conduction with the position
192
What is the chief reform and power granted to bishops in the view of lenski?
"Chief among these was the invention of episcopal jurisdiction whereby Constantine endowed bishops with the right to adjudicate civil suits with unappealable decisions enforced by imperial administrative authority."
193
What did the bishop's court become under Constantine? (Lenski)
"the venue of first resort for civil law adjudication at the local level."
194
Who previously held the powers granted to bishops and what happened as a result of bishops recieving these powers? (Lenski)
"Both of these powers had formerly been reserved for magistrates operating under the authority of the emperor himself. By sharing these powers with bishops, he was establishing them as a sort of vice-magistrate and as such vaulting them above the power of the decurions with whom they shared civic power at the local level."
195
How did the Christian clergy appear to people after Constantine's reforms?
As an attractive career choice
