Week 2-Grounded Theory Flashcards
What is Grounded Theory?
-An approach to research that aims to produce a ‘theory’ grounded in the data (Birks and Mills, 2022, p.4)
-Widely used method of analysing qualitative data
-Set of guidelines for collecting and analysing qualitative data
-Involves creating codes by defining what you see in the data, not according to preconceived ideas – codes “grounded” in the data
-Use of constant comparison - persistent interaction with the data (Constant comparison =constantly interacting with the data e.g., codes, interviews)
-Involves forming a theory based on the collected data as opposed to collecting data after forming a theory (i.e., as in quant research).
-Lots of variation depending on theoretical stance: Glaser & Straus (1967), Strauss (1987), Charmaz (2003).
-It’s a philosophy in itself (a way of thinking)
-You produce a theory at the end following those themes
What are the 3 main key characteristics of grounded theory?
- Systematic – The process by which theory is generated is through the careful application of the general principles and methods of grounded theory
- Guidelines: GT is essentially a set of guidelines which guide data collection, analysis, and theory generation
- Inductive NOT deductive – focuses on generating theories rather than confirming them
What are the origins of Grounded Theory? (Glaser & Strauss, 1965; 1967)
-To provide a sound basis for thorough qualitative research
-”the embarrassing gap between theory and empirical research”
-The first attempt to apply the same logic and rigor of quantitative data analysis to qualitative data (They wanted a strong robust methodology for qualitative research)
-Goal was to systematize/ standardize the collection, coding and analysis of qualitative data for the purpose of generating theory:
-Theoretical sampling
-Constant comparison
What is the case of the nurse and the dying patient? (Quint, 1967)
-The ‘Awareness of dying study’ 1965 (Glaser and Strauss)
-Known as the first GT publication (i.e., book) ever released
-Transformed models of palliative care
-Provided expert clinical input and the ‘patient voice’.
-Was Quint instrumental to GT formulation too? Highlights that GT was developed in multi-disciplinary setting
How did Glaser and Strauss split? (aka Glaser vs Strauss)
-They eventually split in the 1990s and developed divergent schools of thought
-“Glaserian” and “Straussian” versions of grounded theory (Then Charmaz too*)
-Consequence: confusion around exactly what grounded theory procedures and terms are in the literature!
*We use “Constructivist” GT in the Department of Psychology (“Charmaz”) More on this to come…
What were the methodological and philosophical differences between Glaser and Strauss?
Glaser:
-Starts with a completely empty mind
-Has a less structured coding process
-Researcher is passive
-Anything can be used as data – even quant!
-Inductive only
Strauss:
-Has a general idea of where to start
-Has a more structured coding process
-Researcher is active
-Only traditionally qualitative data
-Believed in inductive, deductive and verification for GT. Then abductive. (and Corbin believed this too!)
What is Inductive Reasoning?
-Deals with probability
-Reasoning based on the likely conclusions based on the data
-Empirical observation and data/measurements
-Bottom up
What is Deductive Reasoning?
-Certainty (confirmation of theory)
-Produces a truth value
-Rationalism
-Top down
What is Abductive Reasoning?
-Guesswork
-Forms a hypothesis or likely explanation
-Rooted in both inductive and deductive thinking
What did Strauss and Corbin (1998a) say about the right way to analyse?
“Sometimes, one has to use common sense and not get caught up in worrying about what is the right or wrong way. The important thing is to trust oneself and the process. Students should stay within the general guidelines… and use the procedures and techniques flexibly according to their abilities and the realities of their studies”
What is Charmez’s (2014) Constructivist view on Grounded Theory?
-Reality is not an absolute or a positional “truth”
-“Constructivism” A paradigm that asserts that reality is constructed by those who experience it (Birks & Mills, 2022, p30)
-Or “constructionist”? Encourages researchers to present a social construction of reality through the GT research.
-Process between researcher and participant
-Found research has preconceived ideas and theories
When can you use Grounded Theory?
-When you want to generate a theory: Understanding of social processes, experiences of a phenomenon
-When there is little or no existing research available on a topic: Exploratory, generates ideas for further research
-Can be used with any type of qualitative data: media content, conversations, focus groups, biographical data etc.. (Particularly well suited to interview data)
-Need to decide on a grounded theory analysis before data collection starts due to the sampling methods involved
What are the 6 key features of Grounded Theory? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
- Theoretical sensitivity
- Theoretical sampling
- Memo-writing
- Stages of coding
- Constant comparison
- Data saturation
What is involved in step 1 Theoretical Sensitivity? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
STEP 1 - Enter the research with as few predetermined ideas as possible:
-Literature review not carried out until after analysis (Literature review starts influencing your interviews)
-Debatable as subject dependant, but this prevents extensive reading
-Researcher not totally naïve – already has ‘sensitising concepts’ (basic understanding of topic)
STEP 2 - The ability to generate concepts from data and relate them meaningfully:
-Immersion: See from the respondent’s point of view
-Questioning: Who, when, what, where, how much, why?
-Researcher needs to be aware of implicit meanings of the data
-Theoretical sensitivity is creative, insightful, conceptual
What are the Principles of Sampling? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
Convenience sampling: Initial participants to identify scope and major themes/components
(The majority of themes are collected within the first four interviews of thematic analysis. Guest et al., 2020)
Purposeful sampling: Participants are selected by initial participants or through specific inclusion criteria via research question
Theoretical sampling: Participants are selected according to emerging concepts
Theoretical group model: Group interviews would be conducted to expand upon and verify the emerging model.
What is involved in step 2 Theoretical Sampling? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
-Unique to Grounded Theory (Also known as purposive sampling)
-The process of selecting “incidents, slices of life, time periods, or people on the basis of their potential manifestation or representation of important theoretical constructs” (Patton, 2002, p.238).
-Start with an initial (a priori) sample
-Generally, quite broad inclusion criteria
-Further cases included on the basis of their usefulness in generating theory
-Simultaneous data collection & analysis (Constant Comparison)
What is involved in step 3 Memo Writing? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
-Cannot be over-emphasised!
Writing memos throughout analysis:
-Reflective memos during data collection
-Guides theoretical sampling
-Coding & theory generation
-Start as soon as you have interesting ideas
-Object is to increase theoretical sensitivity
-They evolve – need to come back to them as analysis progresses
-Should be conceptual and not descriptive
-Sometimes it can be descriptive (whatever you need in the moment)
What was Strauss & Corbin’s (1998) take on Memo Writing?
-Varies in length & detail
-At the start ‘awkward and simple’
-Individual styles
-Forces you to work with concepts, not data
-Force reflection & coherence
-Necessary at end of any analytic session
-Can be written from other memos, not just raw data
What is involved in step 4 Stages of Coding? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
-Open coding (codes)
-Axial coding (categories)
-Selective coding (themes)
-Theory formation
-Literature review
What is Open Coding? (Tie, Birks & Francis, 2019)
-Read the transcript line-by-line
-Name each potential code of data
-Varied and numerous
-Quick, generative – can produce 100s of codes
-For exploratory studies, there may be open codes across the data.
-For specific research questions, open codes may be more focused
-Each code should be one or two words (no more than three)
-If more than 1 words, the words should be linked (usually an adjective and noun)
-Can use words which the respondent uses
-However, be mindful as this can create ‘over-coding’
-Gives you leads to pursue
-Start memo writing at this stage; open codes….
What is Axial Coding? (Tie, Birk & Francis, 2019)
-Creation of higher-order codes (“conceptual categories”) from open codes (per transcript)
-Only those that reflect data most accurately.
Looking for:
-Relationships between categories
-Properties of categories
-Action-oriented
Form categories by:
-Bunching frequent, similar codes into a single category
-Can form a category based on 2 frequent, opposing codes (e.g., safe/fearful or anxious/relieved)
-Still memo-writing
-Look for quotes to support your categories (in the appendix)
