Week 3 Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
acient (aDNA)
A
DNA that is isolated from organic remains often dating from hundreds to thousands of years ago. Also, aDNA is typically degraded (i.e., damaged) due to exposure to the elements such as heat, acidity, and humidity.
2
Q
aneuploid
A
A cell with an unexpected amount of chromosomes. The loss or gain of chromosomes can occur during mitotic or meiotic division.
3
Q
antibodies
A
Immune-related proteins that can detect and bind to foreign substances in the blood such as pathogens
4
Q
apoptosis
A
A series of molecular steps that is activated leading to cell death. Apoptosis can be activated when a cell fails checkpoints during the cell cycle; however, cancer cells have the ability to avoid apoptosis.
5
Q
base pairs
A
Chemical bonding between nucleotides, like adenine (A) and thymine (T) or cytosine (C) and guanine (G) in DNA; or (A) and uracil (U) in RNA
6
Q
cell cycle
A
A cycle the cell undergoes with checkpoints between phases to ensure that DNA replication and cell division occur properly
7
Q
cell surface protein
A
A protein that is found on a red blood cell’s surface.
8
Q
diploid
A
Refers to an organism or cell with two sets of chromosomes
9
Q
dna mehykation
A
Methyl groups bind DNA, which modifies the transcriptional activity of a gene by turning it “on” or “off.”
10
Q
dna polymerase
A
Enzyme that adds nucleotides to existing nucleic acid strands during DNA replication. These enzymes can be distinguished by their processivity (e.g., DNA replication).
11
Q
dna replication
A
Cellular process in which DNA is copied and doubled.
12
Q
dna sequence
A
The order of nucleotide bases. A DNA sequence can be short, long, or representative of entire chromosomes or organismal genomes.
13
Q
domoiant
A
Refers to an allele for which one copy is sufficient to be visible in the phenotype.
14
Q
elongation
A
The assembly of new DNA from template strands with the help of DNA polymerases
15
Q
epigenetic porfile
A
The methylation pattern throughout a genome—that is, which genes (and other genomic sites) are methylated and unmethylated
16
Q
eukaryote
A
Single-celled or multicelled organism characterized by a distinct nucleus, with each organelle surrounded by its own membrane
17
Q
exon
A
Protein-coding segment of a gene.
18
Q
gamates
A
Haploid cells referred to as an egg and sperm that will fuse together during sexual reproduction to form a diploid organism.
19
Q
gene
A
Segment of DNA that contains protein-coding information and various regulatory (e.g., promoter) and noncoding (e.g., introns) regions
20
Q
geentic recomination
A
A cellular process that occurs during meiosis I in which homologous chromosomes pair up and sister chromatids on different chromosomes physically swap genetic information.
21
Q
genome
A
All the genetic information of an organism.
22
Q
genotype
A
: The combination of two alleles that code for or are associated with the same gene.
23
Q
hapliod
A
Cell or organism with one set of chromosomes (n = 23)
24
Q
helicase
A
A protein that breaks the hydrogen bonds that hold double-stranded DNA together.
25
histone
Protein that DNA wraps around to assist with DNA organization within the nucleus.
26
homoxygous
Genotype that consists of two identical alleles.
27
incomplete domiance
Heterozygous genotype that produces a phenotype that is a blend of both alleles.
28
initiation
The recruitment of proteins to separate DNA strands and begin DNA replication.
29
interphase
reparatory period of the cell cycle when increased metabolic demand allows for DNA replication and doubling of the cell prior to cell division.
30
introns
Segment of DNA that does not code for proteins.
31
lagging strand
DNA template strand that is opposite to the leading strand. Therefore, DNA replication proceeds discontinuously, generating Okazaki fragments.
32
leading strand
DNA template strand in which replication proceeds continuously
33
meiosis
: The process that gametes undergo to divide. The end of meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells
34
meddelian genetics
s: A classification given to phenotypic traits that are controlled by a single gene.
35
mrna - messsenger rna
RNA molecule that is transcribed from DNA. Its tri-nucleotide codons are “read” by a ribosome to build a protein.
36
mircoarrary technogloy
A genotyping procedure that utilizes a microarray chip, which is a collection of thousands of short nucleotide sequences attached to a solid surface that can probe genomic DNA.
37
mircobiome
The collective genomes of the community of microorganisms that humans have living inside of their body
38
mitrocondronail dna - mtdna
Circular DNA segment found in mitochondria that is inherited maternally.
39
mitrondrion
specialized cellular organelle that is the site for energy production. It also has its own genome (mtDNA).
40
mitosis
The process that somatic cells undergo to divide. The end of mitosis results in two diploid daughter cells.
41
mutation
A nucleotide sequence variation from the template DNA strand that can occur during replication. Mutations can also happen during recombination.
42
next- generation sequencing
A genotyping technology that involves producing millions of nucleotide sequences (from a single DNA sample) that are then read with a sequencing machine. It can be used for analyzing entire genomes or specific regions and requires extensive program-based applications.
43
nucular evelope
A double-layered membrane that encircles the nucleus.
44
nucleuic acid
A complex structure (like DNA or RNA) that carries genetic information about a living organism.
45
nucleotide
The basic structural component of nucleic acids, which includes DNA (A, T, C, and G) and RNA (A, U, C, and G).
46
nuculesl
: Double-membrane cellular organelle that helps protect DNA and regulation of nuclear activities.
47
okazaki fragment
Short DNA strands derived from DNA replication on the lagging strand. They were discovered by Reiji and Tsuneko Okazaki in the 1960s.
48
organelle
A structure within a cell that performs specialized tasks that are essential for the cell. There are different types of organelles with their own function.
49
pathogenic
A genetic mutation (i.e., allele) that has a harmful phenotypic disease-causing effect.
50
penetrance
v
51
phenotype
: The physical appearance of a given trait
52
phspholipide bilayer
Two layers of lipids that form a barrier due to the properties of a hydrophilic (water-loving) head and a hydrophobic (water-repelling) tail.
53
polygenic trait
A phenotype that is controlled by two or more genes.
54
polymerase chain reaction (pcr)
A molecular biology procedure that can make copies of genomic DNA segments. A small amount of DNA is used as a starting template and is then used to make millions of copies.
55
primer
A primer is a small sequence of nucleotides that bind DNA to start the process of DNA replication or PCR
56
prokarpote
A single-celled organism characterized by lack of a nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles
57
promoter
he region of a gene that initiates transcription. Transcription factors can bind and DNA methylation may occur at a promoter site, which can modify the transcriptional activities of a gene.
58
protein
: Chain of amino acids that fold into a three dimensional structure that allow a cell to function in a variety of ways.
59
recessive
Refers to an allele whose effect is not normally seen unless two copies are present in an individual’s genotype
60
rna
Single-stranded nucleic acid molecule.There are different RNAs found within cells and they perform a variety of functions, such as cell signaling and involvement in protein synthesis.
61
rrna
A ribosome-bound molecule that is used to correctly assemble amino acids into proteins.
62
ribsome
An organelle in the cell found in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum. It is responsible for reading mRNA and protein assemblage.
63
rna polymerse
An enzyme that catalyzes the process of making RNA from a DNA template.
64
sanger sequence
A process that involves the usage of fluorescently labeled nucleotides to visualize DNA (PCR fragments) at the nucleotide level.
65
semi conservative repllication
DNA replication in which new DNA is replicated from an existing DNA template strand.
66
sequencing
: A molecular laboratory procedure that produces the order of nucleotide bases (i.e., sequences)
67
sister chromatide
During DNA replication, sister chromatids are produced on the chromosome. In cell division, sister chromatids are pulled apart so that two cells can be formed. In meiosis, sister chromatids are also the sites of genetic recombination.
68
somaitc cell
: Diploid cells that comprise body tissues and undergo mitosis for maintenance and repair of tissues
69
spilcing
The process by which mature mRNAs are produced. Introns are removed (spliced) and exons are joined together
70
sugar phsophate bajcbone
xA biochemical structural component of DNA. The “backbone” consists of deoxyribose sugars and phosphate molecules.
71
telomere
A compound structure located at the ends of chromosomes to help protect the chromosomes from degradation after every round of cell division.
72
termination
The halt of DNA replication activity that occurs when a DNA sequence “stop” codon is encountered.
73
tissue
A cluster of cells that are morphologically similar and perform the same task.
74
trancription
The process by which DNA nucleotides (within a gene) are copied, which results in a messenger RNA molecule
75
trancription factors
Proteins that bind to regulatory regions of genes (e.g., promoter) and increase or decrease the amount of transcriptional activity of a gene, including turning them “on” or “off.”
76
transfer rna trna
RNA molecule involved in translation. Transfer RNA transports amino acids from the cell’s cytoplasm to a ribosome.
77
tra slation
The process by which messenger RNA codons are read and amino acids are “chained together” to form proteins.
78
xlinked
Refers to a pattern of inheritance where the allele is located on the X or Y chromosome.
79
protein synthesis
A multi-step process by which amino acids are strung together by RNA machinery read from a DNA template.
80
lipids
Fatty acid molecules that serves various purposes in the cell, including energy storage, cell signaling, and structure.
81
karyotypying
The microscopic procedure where the number of chromosomes in a cell is determined
82
homologous chromosomes
A matching pair of chromosomes wherein one chromosome is maternally inherited and the other is paternally inherited.
83
hetrozygous
: Genotype that consists of two different alleles.
84
genotyping
A molecular procedure that is performed to test for the presence of certain alleles or to discover new ones.
85
euchromation
Loosely coiled chromosomes found within the nucleus that is accessible for regulatory processing of DNA.
86
epigenetics
Changes in gene expression that do not result in a change of the underlying DNA sequence. These changes typically involve DNA methylation and histone modifications. These changes are reversible and can also be inherited by the next generation.
87
epigenetics
Changes in gene expression that do not result in a change of the underlying DNA sequence. These changes typically involve DNA methylation and histone modifications. These changes are reversible and can also be inherited by the next generation.
88
enzymes
Proteins responsible for catalyzing (accelerating) various biochemical reactions in cells.
89
dna
A molecule that carries the hereditary information passed down from parents to offspring.
90
deleterious
s: A mutation that increases an organism’s susceptibility to disease.
91
cytoplasm
The “jelly-like” matrix inside of the cell that contains many organelles and other cellular molecules.
92
complex disieases
A category of diseases that are polygenic and are also influenced by environment and lifestyle factors.
93
codons
A sequence that comprises three DNA nucleotides that together code for a protein.
94
codominace
The effects of both alleles in a genotype can be seen in the phenotype
95
chromatin
DNA wrapped around histone complexes. During cell division, chromatin becomes a condensed chromosome.
96
centromere
A structural feature that is defined as the “center” of a chromosome and which creates two different arm lengths. Term also refers to the region of attachment for microtubules during mitosis and meiosis.
97
carrier
An individual who has a heterozygous genotype that is typically associated with a disease.
98
carbohydrate
Molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms that can be broken down to supply energy
99
autosomal
: Refers to a pattern of inheritance where an allele is located on an autosome
100
amino acids
Organic molecules that are the building blocks of protein. Each of the 20 different amino acids have their own unique chemical property. Amino acids are also chained together to form proteins.
101
allele
A non-identical DNA sequence found in the same gene location on a homologous chromosome, or gene copy, that codes for the same trait but produces a different phenotype.
102
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
A high-energy compound produced by mitochondria that powers cellular processes.
103
the cell
2 kinds
somatic
* eg. body tissue, blood, brain
* replicate via mitosis
* growth and repair/repalcement
gemetes/sex cells
* unite with a gamate fromanother individual to make zygote/fertilized egg and pass on genetic info to offsprign
* replicate via mitosis
* females- ova/egg males-sperm
104
in nuclues..
* genetic material/dna seen as chromosomes during cell divisioin
105
dna
* base pairs - nucleotides
* adenine- thymine
* guanine- cytosone
* complimentary base pairs, one requires the other
106
chromosomes
* autosomes- gentic info for phsyical characteristics (1-22
* sex chromosomes (23)
* female-xx male-xy
sex chromosomes anomalies
* aneuploid- unexpected number of chromosomes or unexpected combos
* xyy super male
* xxx
* tdf (testis detemination frauqenctly of y broke in meiosis and attached to x) results in sterile male
107
inheritiance
menel- augustine monk 1822-1884
* some traits passed down indepentendtly of other traits
* some traits disappeared in offspirng and later reappeared
* pea experiments to predict progency
* eg. seed colour (green/yellow) or (round/wrinkly)
108
mendalian inheritiance
mendelian traits - discrete (have or not)
* 4500 genes
* ear wax, freckles, bladness
* inherit 1 allele from each parent
* alleles can be domincant or reciessove
* tt, Tt, TT- genotype
* T- dom t-rec
* expression or apperance- phenotype
* homozygous or hetrozygous
109
polygenic traits
`
* influenced by genes @ 2 or more loci
* continous taits with measuremable intermediate forms
* eg. skin colour, sature
* enironment can interact
* eg. stature influenced by diet, disease
* may/may noy grow to genetic potential
110
inheritied genetic disorders
dominant disorders
inherit 1 copy of odminant allele
eg. huntingtons disease on C4
degeneration of NS
onset 30-50 years
recessive disorders
inherit 2 copies of recessive allele
eg. tay sache
degeneration of NS - onset 6 months, death within 3 yeards
carriers are heterozyous Tt
111
genotyping
A molecular procedure that is performed to test for the presence of certain alleles or to discover new ones.
112
lipids
Fatty acid molecules that serves various purposes in the cell, including energy storage, cell signaling, and structure.
113
xlinked
Refers to a pattern of inheritance where the allele is located on the X or Y chromosome.
