Week 3 Flashcards
(48 cards)
1
Q
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
A
- Birth to age 2 years
- Understand and act on the world using sensorimotor or behavioural schemes
2
Q
Sensorimotor substages
A
*look up image
3
Q
Object permanence
A
Developmental progression
- Under 6 months: no object permanence
- Emerges Substage 4
- > 8 – 12 months: search but A-not-B errors
- > Child searches where last found an object, not where we moved it (8 month old baby failing A not B test)
4
Q
Criticisms of Piaget
A
Underestimated infant abilities
- > But correct general trend
- > Development not so stage like
Correct that sensorimotor skill assists some aspects of cognitive development
-> E.g., crawling assists depth perception and retrieving hidden objects
But evidence of some conceptual understanding before motor skills
5
Q
Core knowledge perspective
A
Innate knowledge systems predispose us to understand the world and new information But require experience to extend this innate knowledge Suggested domains: - Physical - Linguistic - Psychological - Numerical - Morality?
6
Q
Information processing perspective
A
*look up image
7
Q
Cognitive gains in infancy and toddlerhood
A
Attention
- improved efficiency, ability to shift focus
- less attraction to novelty, improved sustained attention
Memory
- longer retention intervals
- development of recall by second half of first year
Categorisation
- gradual shift from perceptual to conceptual categorisation in toddlerhood
8
Q
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
A
Like Piaget, constructivist, but emphasised social mediation of cognitive construction
-> Child as “little apprentice” (cf. Piaget’s “little scientist”)
Knowledge constructed via:
- Collective dialogues
- Collaborative learning
- Guided participation, scaffolding
- Imitation
9
Q
Language development - nativist approach
A
Chomsky (1957) Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
- universal grammar hard-wired
- maturational unfolding
- fine-tuned by experience
Evidence
- Universal aspects of early language
- Uniquely human
- Specialised area left hemisphere
- Sensitive period 6 – 12 years
- look up image - language acquisition
10
Q
Critique of nativist approach
A
- Hard to identify universal grammar
- Slower and more error-prone language acquisition than innate ability would predict
- Learning is important in language
- Brain plasticity shows other areas of brain capable of supporting language
11
Q
Social interactionist view
A
- Children cue caregivers to provide necessary language experiences
- Language acquired via social interaction
- > Debate over whether there are also innate or specialised language abilities
- Social competence and language experience affect language progress
12
Q
Characteristics of infants directed speech (IDS)
A
- higher pitch
- simple vocabulary
- sound substitution
- short sentences
- fluctuating intonation
- exaggerated expressions & gestures
13
Q
Infant directed speech
A
IDS not essential but interaction is
-> e.g., Kaluli people of Papua New Guinea do not use “baby talk”
IDS plays a role in gaining attention, maintains communication
-> Provides opportunities for learning
Babies who are talked to/with more show greater language development
14
Q
Infant communication development
A
- 4 months: interest in turn-taking games, gaze in direction adults looking
- 6 months: babbling initially universal sounds
- 6 - 9 mths: developing understanding of single words
- 10-11 months: joint attention
- 12 months: universality of babbling lost
- 9 – 12 mths: understands simple instructions
- 12 months: pre-verbal gesturing
- 10-15 months: first words
15
Q
Telegraphic speech
A
single word conveys whole idea or whole sentence
-> word + context, gesture, intonation
16
Q
First words and two words utterances
A
18-24 months:
- over-extension
- under-extension
- telegraphic speech
- correct word order associated with improved compliance
17
Q
Child temperament and language development
A
Child temperament
- > E.g. emotional reactivity diverts children from processing language.
- > Quantity and richness and caregiver conversations
- > Referential vs. expressive style-What is language for?
18
Q
Eriksons psychosocial theory - trust V mistrust
A
TRUST vs MISTRUST (0 – 1 year)
Successfully resolved by experiencing sympathetic, loving care
-> Broader focus than Freud’s narrow focus on oral gratification via breast feeding
Trust –> Prime adaptive ego quality: hope
-> Minimal fear or apprehension about future
-> Confidence to explore wider world
Implications for cognitive and social development
Mistrust –> Core pathology: withdrawal
19
Q
Eriksons psychosocial theory - autonomy V shame and doubt
A
Importance of parental handling of emerging desire for autonomy
-> Cf. Freud’s narrower focus on toilet training
Over-controlling and under-controlling by parents both problematic
Criticism and punishment for failed attempts at autonomy –> shame & doubt
20
Q
Emotional development - happiness
A
- Social smile around 6 – 10 weeks
- Think about evocative gene-environment correlations
- Relation to language and cognitive development
- Relation to parent-child relationship
21
Q
Emotional development - anger
A
Distress shown from birth
- > Crying
- > Mothers (main caregivers) can generally recognise different cries for discomfort, anger, pain and respond accordingly
- -> Relevant to resolving Trust crisis
- -> Relevant to establishing secure attachment
- As intentional behaviour increases, frustration and anger more frequent
- > The terrible twos!
22
Q
Emotional development - fear
A
Intense Stranger Anxiety around 9 months more likely or intense if : - in unfamiliar environment - away from mother - stranger is an adult - stranger is passive and unsmiling - stranger is a bearded male
Separation Anxiety: from 8 – 9 mths, peaks around 15 months
23
Q
Self-conscious emotion
A
Higher-order feelings including:
- Shame, guilt, embarrassment, envy, pride
- Appear between 18-24 months
24
Q
Self development - self recognition
A
- Visual self-recognition emerges around 20 months
- > Rouge test
- Recognise self in photographs by around 2 years
- Early foundation in cause-and-effect experiences
- Cultural differences
- > Acquired earlier with distal parenting styles that emphasise independence cf. proximal parenting styles that emphasise interdependence
25
Self development - outcomes of developing self awareness
- emergence self-conscious emotions
- improvements in effortful control, compliance, & delay of gratification
- Combined with advancing cognitive, language, and social skills supports developing empathy.
26
Emergence of self regulation
- Emotional self-regulation: strategies to self-adjust emotional state to a comfortable level in order to be able to meet goals
- Important for autonomy, cognitive development, and social skills
27
Effortful control
- Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan & execute a more adaptive response
- Utilises executive functions: inhibitory control, focusing & shifting attention
- > Aspects of information processing system
- -> Rely on underlying brain development
- Important aspect of temperament
28
Parenting to foster emotional regulation and effortful control
- Appropriate stimulation
- Sensitivity and responsiveness
- Shaping socially approved ways of expressing emotions
- > boys more training in controlling negative emotions than girls
- > Girls “naturally” better at self-control of negative emotion
- > cultural differences
- Effective management of tantrums
29
Cognitive development and motor development to foster emotional regulation and effortful control
2) Cognitive development (and underlying pre-frontal cortical brain development)
- Executive functioning esp. control of attention
- Language development
- > How might language development influence emotional regulation?
3) Motor development
- How would motor development assist emotional self-regulation?
30
Temperament
“constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation” (Rothbart & Bates, 1998, p.109)
-> an individual’s behavioural style and characteristic way of emotionally responding
- Foundation of later personality
31
Thomas and Chess (1977) New York Longitudinal study - 9 aspects of temperament
- Activity level
- Intensity of reaction
- Rhythmicity
- Attention Span/Persistence
- Distractibility
- Threshold responsiveness
- Quality of mood
- Adaptability
- Approach/Withdrawal
32
Temperament types
Three types:
- Easy 40%- adjust easily to new situations, quickly establish routines, are generally cheerful, and easy to calm.
- Slow-to-warm up 15 %- inactive, initially unwilling to approach, adapt or be distracted but adjusts with time.
- Difficult 10%- irregular, reactive, unhappy, hard to distract, slow to adapt
- Average/mixed: 35%
33
Temperamental stability
- Temperament is relatively stable over time
- Very few children change radically
BUT, temperament can be modified through experiences, especially parenting style
- More "difficult" infant temperament -> behavioural and emotional adjustment problems in early childhood and beyond
- Especially if there are other risks in the child's life
34
Temperamental stability after 3 years
- Temperament is a better predictor of later functioning after effortful control emerges (about 3 years)
- Longer-term: childhood and adolescent predictors of better functioning in young adulthood
- > better emotional control
- > less emotional reactivity
35
"Goodness of fit" Thomas and Chess (1977)
“Goodness of fit”: the degree to which an individual’s temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of his or her social environment
- Lack of fit -> parent socialisation efforts to recognise the child’s particular style but also to modify that to better fit the environment
- E.g., difficult temperament, shyness
36
Attachment - the first relationship
- Psychoanalytic theories: emphasis on feeding
- Behaviourism emphasis on classical conditioning- also focused on feeding
- Harlow & Harlow’s work with rhesus monkeys discounted role of feeding
37
Attachment theory
John Bowlby influenced by psychoanalytic background and Lorenz’ imprinting work
-> Ethological theory: human attachment is an evolved response that promotes survival
Attachment: active, reciprocal tie that endures across time and space; leads to desire for contact, distress at separation
Development of internal working model regarding availability of attachment figures that influences later relationships
38
Development of attachment (Ainsworth)
0 – 6 weeks: Pre-attachment; general sociability, indiscriminant
6 wks – 6/8 months: Attachment-in-the-making
--> 4 months: differential sociability
6/8 mths – 18mths: Clear-cut attachment to primary caregiver
-> Stranger Anxiety
-> Separation Anxiety
-> Emergence of secondary attachments
39
Attachment classification: Ainsworth's strange situation
All children have developed an attachment relationship by 12 months
-> Quality differs
Measured using the Strange Situation Test
-> Critical episode is the reaction to the reunion with caregiver
-> But also look for use of mother as secure base, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety
40
Type A: insecure avoidant: 15%
- minimal interest in caregiver
- minimal distress at separation
- minimal stranger anxiety
- does not seek out caregiver on reunion
41
Type B: secure: approx 60%
- seeks caregiver if distressed
- separation anxiety
- joy upon reunion
- caregiver provides secure base for exploration
42
Type C: Anxious-Ambivalent or Insecure-Resistant: (about 10%)
- minimal exploration
- preoccupied with caregiver
- resists separation but resistant upon reunion
43
Type D: disorganised/disorientated: about 15%
- “fright without solution” (Main & Hesse, 1990)
- associated with maltreatment, residential care, maternal mental illness
- Bizarre behaviours- contradictory, incomplete, stereotypes, freezing/stilling, disoriented or apprehensive in presence of parent
44
Important factors for child temperament types
Opportunity
- Risks from early institutional care where no opportunity to form relationship with one or a few caregivers
- -> Think about the Romanian orphans study
- Up to 6 years, late adoptees can securely attach to parents, but some difficulties for late adoptees
- -> Higher rates of insecure attachments
45
Caregiving quality
Sensitivity
- accurate identification of infant communication and needs
- positive emotions
- interest and pleasure in infant
Interactional Synchrony
- awareness of appropriate level of stimulation
46
Parenting behaviours and attachment styles
secure:
responsive, positive emotions, tender handling, sensitivity and synchrony
avoidant:
over-stimulating, intrusive
resistant:
minimal interaction, inconsistent care
disorganised:
dysfunctional caregiving
47
Infant characteristics
Infant Characteristics
Temperament
-> difficult infants: insecure attachments more likely
Heritability virtually 0
-> Experiences of parent-child interactions important
Family Factors
- Stress
- Financial difficulties
- Marital problems
48
Secure attachment style consistently associated with
- higher self-esteem
- more self-confidence
- more ego-resilience
- higher popularity
- better cognitive skills
- better coping skills
- greater enthusiasm & persistence for learning
- higher curiosity
- higher independence from parents
- fewer problem behaviours
