WEEK 6&7 MOTIVATION Flashcards
What is motivation? What are the 6 critical concepts? (DIQP?BP)
Motivation: “the process that controls both the direction and strength of a choice made by a person among alternative courses of action”
→ essentially, motivation is the driving force that influences an individual’s behaviours, actions, and choices.
Six critical concepts:
1.Direction
2.Intensity
3. Quality
4. Persistence
5. Behaviour - the action from which we infer motivation
6. Performance- the standard by which we measure behaviour
How is motivation related to performance?
Performance- the standard by which we measure behaviour
Performance= (motivation x ability) - situational constraints
- Performance (a general evaluation of how a certain behaviour occurred) can be measured by the individual’s level of motivation multiplied by their ability to perform the specific behaviour, minus situational constraints that may have impeded/negatively impacted how the behaviour was performed.
- motivation x ability is an important concept, because it tells us that even if ability is high, if there is no motivation at all (m=0), performance will be low→ anything multiplied by zero = zero
How are motivational theories classified?
Classification of Theories:
“Person as machine”
- These theories claim that people’s actions and behaviours are reflexive, involuntary and performed without conscious awareness
- Actions and behaviours are pushed by internal needs and pulled by environmental stimuli
“Person as judge”
- These theories claim that an individual seeks information about the extent to which the self and others are perceived as responsible for positive and negative events
- The individual looks for for evidence of intentions in the actions of others and considers these intentions when deciding how to proceed with an action
“Person as intentional”
- These theories claim that individual’s behaviours are intentional, they make goals and plans associated with their actions
Explain Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor, 1960):
- Theory claims there are two distinct approaches to behaviour (X and Y)
- Theory X: claims that people are inherently lazy, have no ambition, and thus dislike and avoid work. According to this theory, people must be coerced, watched, scolded, and led by a dictatorial leader in order to be motivated
- Theory Y: claims that people are industrious, creative, and seek challenging opportunities. According to his theory, people want to participate, and prefer leaders who allow them to work toward personal goals with a certain degree of independence.
Explain the Genetics/Heredity Theory of Motivation
Genetics/Heredity Theory (Judge & Ilies, 2002; Ng et al., 2006)
- This theory claims that motivation is closely linked to personality. It argues for a strong relationship between personality characteristics and performance motivation
- Neuroticism (emotional instability) is negatively related to performance motivation, while conscientiousness, and internal locus of control are positively related to performance motivation
- Motivational Performance Questionnaire (MTQ): the standardized method for measuring general performance motivation. Includes 6 distinct dimensions of personality in the context of performance.
Explain Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
Needs Hierarchy Theory (Maslow, 1950):
- This theory claims that all humans have a basic set of needs and that these needs express themselves over the lifespan of the individual as internal drives.
- Was developed as an explanation fro human development, not in the context of work motivation
- According to the theory, when we are young, we are concerned most with our physical well being, then as we grown up, our needs shift and slowly shift up Maslow hierarchy pyramid
- The model contains 5 sets of needs which are arranged hierarchically:
1. Physiological : basic needs or drives meant to satisfy physical wellbeing (food, water, sleep, etc)
2. Safety/Security: the need to produce a secure environment that is free of threats to continued existence
3. Social : these needs are associated with interpersonal factors, refer to an individual need to feel loved and accepted by others
4. Self-Esteem: needs associated with being respected for accomplishments or capabilities
5. Self-actualization: these needs refer to the desire of an individual to develop their capacities to the fullest. According to Maslow, as most people continue to learn and grown throughout their lifespan, very few people accomplish this need
CRITICISMS:
- Not based on empirical research
- Studies have shown need not related to need deficiencies
- # of needs?
- Change with time/ age?
- Concurrent needs
- Not useful for day-to-day behaviour at work
Explain McClelland;s Learned Needs Theory
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory states that every person has one of three main driving motivators: the needs for achievement, affiliation, or power.
- These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life experiences.
Explain BF Skinners Reinforcement Theory
Heavily influenced by Skinner’s work on behaviourism and principles of conditioning, Reinforcement Theory states that behaviours can be altered by means of rewards and punishments.
- According to this theory, there are three key elements to reinforced behaviour: the stimulus which prompts a behaviour (e.g. a manager requests that an employee performs a task a specific way), the response elicited by the stimulus (e.g. the employee performs the task), and the reward (e.g. the manager gives the employee a bonus for doing the task correctly)
- Although Reinforcement Theory in the workplace is often associated with pay, other forms of rewards for positive behaviours include additional benefits and verbal affirmations.
- On the other hand, punishments such as verbal criticism, decreased hours, and demotions may also be used to reduce the prevalence of negative behaviours
CRITICISMS:
- Theory oversimplifies human behaviour by focusing solely on observable behaviours and ignoring internal mental processes.
- Extrinsic rewards and punishments may undermine intrinsic motivation, leading to a decrease in interest or engagement once the reinforcement is removed.
What are the four types of response-Reward Contingencies?
There are four types of response-reward contingencies that can be applied to different job positions:
1) fixed interval - hourly pay (x$/hr)
2) fixed ratio - piece work (x$/ every 1 product sold)
3) variable interval - pay given after variable amounts of time
4) variable ratio - pay given after variable amount of products sold/ jobs done
- Fixed ratio and variable ratio seem to improve motivation more than fixed interval pay
- Rewards improve motivation for simple tasks
Explain Adams’ Equity Theory
Adams’ Equity Theory (1965) claims that motivation is driven by social comparisons and by one’s overall perception of equity within the workplace
- According to this theory, an individual perceives a situation as inequitable when the ratio between their inputs and outcomes differs from that of a colleague
- Inputs refer to an individual’s strengths or assets, and in the context of the workplace, include work ethic, education level and job qualifications.
- Outputs, on the other hand, refer to what an individual receives from the job, and include elements such as pay, benefits, and status
- The basis of equity theory, is that the
perceived discrepancy between one’s input/output ratio and the input/output ratio of a colleague, creates tension, which in turn, instills motivation
- In order to decrease perceived inequity, an individual may be motivated in several ways: to change their inputs (by increasing or decreasing productivity, work ethic, work quality, etc.), to change their outcomes (by asking for a promotion or raise), to change their perception of the situation (altering how they view the input/outcomes in general), to change the object of comparison (to another colleague) or by simply leaving the job
CRITICISMS:
- Not precise
– Larger threshold for overpayment
- Time
- Other outputs/needs
– Not only $ motivates performance
Explain Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (aka Valence-Intrumentality-Expectancy Theory)
Expectancy theory Vroom (1964)
- One of the most popular theories
- Cognitive theory, conscious choice
- Very well studied
- Not valid across individuals, but rather within subjects (i.e. across different tasks)
5 parts:
1. Job outcomes: rewards (tangible and intangible)
2. Valence- satisfaction/attractiveness of tasks (-10-+10)
3. Instrumentality - perceived relationship between performance and outcome (0-1)
4. Expectancy - perceived relationship between effort and performance (0-1)
5. Force- effort within a person to be motivated
Formula: F= E(V*I)
Ex.
Performance in class is measured by midterm mark
outcome= letter grade
performance= midterm mark
Strong instrumentality= a lot of clarity of relationship between performance and outcome
Strong expectancy= a lot of clarity of relationship between effort and performance (ex. If you study really hard and still do poorly on the test, there is low expectancy)
Explain Locke and Latham’s Goal-setting Theory
Source of motivation is desire to attain goals.
- Not to do with inequity or schedules of pay
- Two Major Functions of Goals:
1. Basis for Motivation – how much effort to expend
2. Direct Behaviour
- Two Pre-Conditions for Goal-Setting to be Effective
1. Awareness 2. Acceptance
Factors that Influence Goal-Setting Effectiveness
1. Goal Difficulty
2. Goal Specificity
3. Feedback
Explain Self-Regulation Theory
Distillation of other “control” theories
* Individuals play an active role in monitoring and altering the direction, intensity and persistence of their behavior
* Major Components
– Goals
– Self-Monitoring or Self-Evaluation
– Role of multiple feedback loops
– Self-Efficacy
– Goal Revision
- multiple feedback loops
- self efficacy is important for motivation and is influenced by social persuasion, feedback physiological states, etc
- small difference between outcomes and goal –> increase self efficacy–> increased motivation
Explain Heckman and Oldman’s Job Characteristics Theory
Heckman and Oldman’s Job Characteristics Theory, posits that motivation is not derived from the individual, but from the characterics of the job itself
- According to this theory, there are certain elements related to a job that have the ability to influence an individual’s psychological state, which in turn influences their levels of motivation
- These job elements are referred to as “core job dimensions’’ and include: skill variety (the number and diversity of skills being applied), task significance (the overall importance of the task), task identity (the ability of a task to be completed fully), autonomy (independence and control within the position) and feedback (after completing a task)
- These core job dimensions influence an individual’s critical psychological states, which include 1) experienced meaningfulness, 2) experienced responsibility and 3) knowledge of results of work activities
- Ultimately, Heckman and Oldman argue that certain fundamental elements of a job have the ability to foster high levels of motivation, satisfaction and performance within the workplace
Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
(skill+task +significane / 3) autonomyfeedback
CRITICISMS:
- Research suggests that there are multiple job characteristics, not sure how many
- Link between job characteristics and critical psychological states not as strong as originally hypothesized
- Level of individual motivation
