Week 6-end Flashcards

Question

What is biparental care in monogamous species

Answer 1

- Male’s contribute in offspring welfare is major a) European starling’s kids develop faster, higher catch rate too - Type of male care is limited compared to females (females can produce milk etc) so based on sexual selection theory, guys technically should focus on mating w/more girls - If mate assistance hypothesis is correct a) Mammals w/paternal instincts should be monogamous b)Tested by California mouses showing that more pups are made together then when females are solitary

Answer 2

monogomy - Breeding females are intolerant of each other and spread out - This makes it hard for guys to keep track/protect all his hoes resulting in spending time with just one polyandry - Intense competition for females and territories, dudes are capable of forming teams to defends sites - If females give all the dudes equal chances, mean fitness for each mate is higher than if one decided not to join the team (in a team ur fitness increases but u gotta share, no team=lower fitness than everyone)

Answer 3

1. Good genes hypothesis - to produce good offsprings (reduced stillbirth, their clutches survive more than those produced by single mate males) 2. Genetic compatibility hypothesis: - Increases odds of receiving genetically complimentary sperm (terms of fertilization, growth, survival) 3. Genetic diversity hypothesis: - To increase the heterozygosity of either individual offspring or the group of offspring produced in a single bout (different group or different generations) - Less chances of carrying recessive alleles that cause defects - These mixed groups will survive bouts of disease/environments (stronger immune systems, different types of resistance) 4. Inbreeding avoidance hypothesis: Avoids inbreeding with their social partner

Answer 4

Additional resources hypothesis: - Access to additional resources - Gain multiple caregivers for kids (they cant tell which kid is theirs so they have to take care of all)

Answer 5

Females mate with multiple males to confuse them over who the actual baby daddy is

Answer 6

Female defence polygyny hypothesis : - evenly distributed resources = female groups with male guard (males fight for this position) to access resources/dilute predation - social monogomy never occur - dominat małe can control up to 80% of mating by driving away subordinates harem defence polygyny: - a form of female defence polygyny, females are socially bonded, male can monopolize a whole group (zebra's) Resource defence polygyny hypothesis: - clumped resources = females attracted to it and males easily guard resources + female by ext. lek polygyny hypothesis: - resources distributed heterogeneously and no female groups formed = males wait for women to come to them - their lek circle is for display at intersections where females must pass - unequal mating success, older males are in centre and females compete to mate w/that one scramble competition polygyny hypothesis: - resources distributed heterogeneously and no female group formed = males seek them out

Answer 7

- Measured male territories and female foraging ranges - Females hunting range is so large it overlaps with multiple males’ territories, creating a polygynandrous system - When resources are supplemented, female range decreases, also decreasing amt of social mates they have

Answer 8

- The point where females gain higher fitness by mating w/taken male than a bachelor right after (prefer bachelors ass they have more offspring/don’t share territory) - Manipulated pairs of red-winged blackbirds found females chose best nesting location even if it meant joining a harem (had 2x amt of kids)

Answer 9

Hotspot hypothesis: - Males make their clusters in areas traveled by females Hotshot hypothesis: - Subordinates cluster around the hotshot to have a chance at female interaction Female preference hypothesis: - Males cluster cause females like the male accessibility of male leks

Answer 10

Artificial leks populated by painted decoys are placed with varying amts of sex combos to see how many live birds are attracted to each Rejects hotspot but not hotshot or female preference - Female decoys failed to attract male clusters - Male decoys especially large clusters did attract females

Answer 11

When receptive females and their resources are dispersed, males will look for them before others can (scrambling to find them), persistence beats aggression

Answer 12

prerequisite for monogamous mating system - economic defendability of a mate preconditions for evolution of polygamy 1. environmental potential for polygamy (EPP) - species/resources that can attract multiple mates needs to be energetically defendable 2. ability to capitalize on EPP - dictated by parental care

Answer 13

collective behaviour - synchronized movement of individuals following basic interaction rules interaction: - non-independence between individuals' movements

Answer 14

Mutual benefit - Both receive benefits - Hard to identify benefits to both parties and can be mistaken for kin-selected benefit - Clownfish wait for a vacant breeding position (being dominant isn't beneficial but chasing away others is also not costly) Altruism - recipient gets fitness benefits while donor gets a cost Selfishness - Donor benefits, recipient doesn’t (kleptoparasitism, stealing from someone else who did the collecting) Spite - Neither the donor nor recipient benefits (rare) - not favoured by natural selection but could be adaptive

Answer 15

- individuals form relationships that are not always equal and changes over time - individuals represented as odes while their connections are Called edges, more connections = more edges, the stronger the connection, the thicker the node

Answer 16

Direct - helpful actions that is repaid later (costs of helping is modest but delayed benefit is great) - only happens in species who'll know each other long enough for the payout - not common (vulnerable to those forgetting to repay, this defectors reduce evolution of reciprocity) indirect: - helpful action repaid later by someone else (witnesses will wanna help you out later)

Answer 17

prisoner's dilemma - game theory construct where fitness payoff are set to be mutual cooperation generating lower return instead of defection payoff ranking: 1. defect while other cooperates 2. both cooperate 3. both defect 4. cooperate while others defect optimal response is to always defect - but if individuals can use "tit-for-tat_ and go back and forth, rewards will accumulate and exceed reward for a single defection

Answer 18

multiple individuals care for young together - on 5% of mammals and 10% of birds/fish - characterized by presence of non-breeding helpers that aid in parental care (alloparental care) - these helpers are male in birds but females in mammals (capable of breeding but don't, usually the older child)

Answer 19

kin selection hypothesis: - indirect fitness benefits delay independent breeding and instead helping group augmentation hypothesis: - survival/reproduction is better by living in a larger group (delayed reciprocity, hard to test, likelihood of territory inheritance) ecological constraints hypothesis: - when breeding resources are limited, individuals delay dispersal and remain in the territory to help raise relatives (limited resources means it'll be even tougher alone) life history hypothesis: - historical traits like juvenile/adult survival impacts cooperative breeding evolution (create's surplus of individuals in a habitat) benefits-of-philopatry hypothesis: - benefits of delayed dispersal outweighs costs associated with independence temporal variability hypothesis: - environmental uncertainty promotes cooperative breeding because having helpers at the best allows birds to breed successfully under both good/bad conditions (reproductive insurance) - occurs in arid environments where rainfall is low, variable, and unpredictable

Answer 20

- primary helpers work the hardest which translates to lower probability of surviving to return to breeding grounds - primary helpers raise fitness indirectly while secondary raise theirs directly - only 67& of surviving primary helpers find mates in their 2nd yr 91% of secondary helpers go on to breed (bonds with the women they're helping = increases their access to mates)

Answer 21

helpers reduce the workload of parents in offspring care - direct benefits to the breeders can also explain why cooperative breeding systems can evolve - presence of helpers allow parents to reduce their workload pay to stay

Answer 22

can be heritable and repeatable but behaviours are more plastic than heritable 1. animal personality: - individual behaviours that are repeatable through time, consistency within individuals across contexts 2. behavioural syndrome: - behavioural consistency within individuals across contexts. individual behaviours that are repeatable through time species that exhibit cooperative breeding are ideal for studying fitness effects of personality because they can adopt different roles that vary in success - studies wanted to ee if specific personalities are more likely to become a breeder vs helper, proof for this is limited

Answer 23

obligate: - helpers cannot reproduce and only gain fitness benefits indirectly facultative: - helpers retain potential for reproduction, maximizing their lifetime inclusive fitness as a combination of both direct/indirect fitness - high potential for reproductive conflict and structure of society influences the potential its potential

Answer 24

- cooperative breeding species vary in social organizations and reproductive skew singular breeding: social groups contain only a single breeding female and reproductive skew is high plural breeding: - social groups contain multiple breeding females and reproductive skew is lower - multiple females breed w/multiple males - offsprings tend to be less related to each other - groups consists of a mixture of related and unregulated individuals - reproductive conflict can be high for breeding positions because there are more breeding opportunities

Answer 25

- Avian mating systems are fluid and promiscuous - in species where nest contain s kids from multiple baby daddies, offsprings are less likely to engage in cooperative breeding with helpers, instead preferring monogamous species - in social species that form kin groups, mating and social systems go hand in hand

Answer 26

Communication: - transfer of info between sender/receiver that affects current/ future behaviour and fitness of one or both Signal: - coevolved message between sender/ receiver containing info (evolution of comms requires signal perception) Cue: unintentional and unselected transfer of information

Answer 27

- Stable information includes things like species identify, sex, or toxicity - Physiological condition or dominance rank can change - critical for survival/reproduction - communicate abt what's around them and themselves - interpretation is critical as it influences fitness of both parties - used ass warning sounds (what, where, when)

Answer 28

Preexisting trait hypothesis: - Signals evolve through senders preexisting traits( behavioural, physiological, or morphological) that already provide informative cues to receivers and can be modified into a signal via ritualization) Preexisting bias hypothesis: - Signals evolve through receivers preexisting biases(biases in their sensory systems that detect some features of the world better than others) - sensory exploited by senders

Answer 29

Evolutionary transitions occur by changing structures piece by piece as selection does not start from scratch but acts on what already exists *panda thumbs is a highly modified wrist bone (their ancestors used it for running but when they evolved into herbivores, it changed)

Answer 30

Trinidadian guppies: - males can't see orange and gets it through plants but can synthesize red pigmentation (drosopterin) - females prefer orange dudes as a product of evolved visual sensitivity to the colour

Answer 31

Honest signaling: - both sender and receiver obtain a fitness benefit - large males have an easier time making threat displays - there is a cheap production cost but maintenance cost due to social enforcement is higher Deceitful signaling: - sender receives a benefit and receiver pays a cost - senders receive benefits by manipulation - carnivorous female fireflies lights up to attract males then eat them Eavesdropping: - sender pays a fitness cost and receiver gains a benefit - when predators/parasites eavesdrop, costs are imposed on legitimate sender g. some lyre birds will eavesdrop and create illusions of predators to keep females from leaving display area - this has shaped sender behaviours (songbirds starting producing calls at higher frequencies)

Answer 32

- many species use a different sensory modalities to signal (tactile, visual, acoustic, chemical etc.) Multiple message hypothesis: - Different signaling modalities convey different info Redundant signal hypothesis: - Diff modalities independently convey the same info, providing insurance for errors or environmental noise example: - peacock spiders exhibit visual and vibrational signals and ALSO haas oramental tails - both used to court females

Answer 33

Novel Environment hypothesis: - the environment is sufficiently different from the one where the behaviour originated so that there's enough time for adaption to happen Net Benefit hypothesis: - a sensory mechanism that result in fitness losses for some under certain circumstances but doesn't erase the fitness gain by receivers for reacting to a sender aka evolves when costs for producing false response are lowering than that of failing to respond

Answer 34

- individuals rapidly learn to forage in more efficient manners as they gain experience - only occurs if it is adaptive because its costly to learn

Answer 35

1. environmental stability a) in dynamic world (habit A= 50% probability of high fitness Habitat B = 50% high fitness) b) fixed world (habitat A = 100% while habitat B=0%) - if environment is regulated, learning decreases and evolution is fixed) 2. usefulness of past experience - if reliability increases, learning will be favoured

Answer 36

- reduction and lack of response to stimulus over time - habituation to useless stuff is good cause then they can focus on important stimuli

Answer 37

1. changes in neurotransmitters 2. number of synapses between neurons

Answer 38

- rapid learning during a short amount of time but has long lasting effects - vulnerable offsprings benefit from this so they can recognize parents and remain close - the IMHV in the brain has important role in memory related to imprinting (lesions/blockers will prevent imprinting - eg. baby geese imprinted on Konrad's boots

Answer 39

- neural plasticity: structural changes in number of synapses and they're chemical strength between neurons - these changes are dynamic due to formation/elimination of dendritic spines (small protuberance that receive synaptic inputs) - more knowledge = more dendritic spines formed

Answer 40

Classical - a type of learning where Novel stimulus is paired with an existing stimulus and elicits a irate response (dogs salivate when they see food and owner who feeds them) operant: - process of associating behaviour w/a consequence any of these types can occur: 1. positive reinforcement: behaviour is more likely due to presentation of a stimulus 2. negative reinforcement: behaviour more likely due to removal of stimulus 3. positive punishment: behaviour less likely cause of presentation of stimulus 5. negative punishment: behaviour less likely cause of removal of stimulus

Answer 41

- certain species like the damsel fish make association between chemical alarm cues and odours of hetero-specific fish o learn their predators learning curves: graphical rep of change

Answer 42

- others r info sources for learning - may be favoured if energetically efficient - black tailed prairie dogs learn anti predator behaviours from adults - local enhancement: strategy where they look for presence of others to indicate focus areas - public info: obtained by activity of others showing quality of environment

Answer 43

experienced individual facilitates learning of newbies 1. teacher will modify his behaviour only while pupil is present 2. the behaviour is costly for the teacher 3. pupil acquires knowledge rapidly through actions of teacher compared to otherwise eg. ptarmigan birds learn what to eat quickly (hens drop small food and bop their heads when chicks are nearby)

Answer 44

difference in behaviour among populations that are transmitted between generations through social learning - dolphins use marine sponge to locate submerged prey - these sponge tools are only found in dolphins near shark-bay

Answer 45

differences in multiple traditions among pops explanation: - genetic basis - ecological differences - social learning

Answer 46

- ability to acquire, retain, process, and use info (can evolve more applications) 1. early work used tools and observed its manipulation to achieve a goal (problem-solving behaviour) 2. mirror self-recognition test: mark placed on face of individual who its placed in front of a mirror. - if individual directs any behaviour towards it, demonstrates self-awareness (most species don't pass) 3. numerical competency: ability to recognize numerical info - ability to estimate amt of objects/events - they can only count "more" of somm but not "less"

Answer 47

Magnitude effect: - many spices can distinguish between small quantities (1-3 rather than 6-8) disparity effect: - easier for them to select larger quantity when the difference between options its large (easy to distinguish 2-5 not 4-5) - numerical discrimination tests used - tested if species exhibits numerical discrimination and whether training was required for it

Answer 48

- cognition involves retention of info, thus memory its the most important characteristic of it - memory benefits locations recognition, behaviours - examines food caches created by animals (stored for later)

Answer 49

- ability to recall past events and provide quantitive measures for cognition (length of time between events is recorded) - eg. memory of old food patches etc. behavioural flexibility: - approach of cognition assessment based on graded manner - it measured ability to alter behaviour in response to environmental stimuli - measured by ability to innovate - ability to quickly inhibit a previous behaviour when conditions changed - reversal learning: - after learning to associate 1 stimuli/reward, the conditions are reversed and individuals needs to associate reward/alternate stimuli

Answer 50

- used reversal learning test and spatial memory tasks to asses cognitive function of an individual - studied those individuals to see how many offspring's they had (positive correlation between the two ) - female initially liked the unpreffered male base on just visuals and stuff - but once the preferred was trained to open boxes, the female preferred intellect

Answer 51

- brain size its positively correlated to body size - increased brain size allows for greater behavioural flexibility - spacial memory is associate with the hippocampus(hippocampal formation in birds) - harsher conditions show higher caching ability/higher memory/larger brains (heritable) eg. bird Brians have reported new foraging innovations, also good caching memory

Answer 52

- goal oriented - dynamic, - involves decision making by: - energy optimization - food availability and nutritional needs - predation risks and competition - social status - level of cognition - habitat features and human influence

Answer 53

optimal - organismal attributes are optimal and generates possible adaptive values for fitness of those that have it optimal foraging - predicts how animals maximize fitness while foraging (cost benefits) models assume energy maximization is all that matters but they do not always select food as efficiently as possible factors: - biology affect foraging behaviour (oystercatchers don't always get the biggest one cause its covered in barnacles) - predation risk will result in preferred temporary small gain instead (life-dinner principle)

Answer 54

- chooses among places rather than among types of food marginal value theory: - animals should stay in patch until its marginal benefit of feeding declines to equal the average intake rate of the enviornment

Answer 55

caloric costs of gathering food is less than caloric benefits gained by eating whales: - whales dive for 15min when foraging (cost = 60K KJ cost) but will gather 30mil KJ in benefits

Answer 56

In terms of predation risk in changing foraging behaviour, foraging behaviour changes when introduced to predators, individuals will lower energy intake to avoid risk of getting killed (move to different areas or somm)

Answer 57

ornaments attraction(colour, size) or armaments that facilitate competition (antlers, horns, claws) they signal good health and diet (high quality)

Answer 58

broad - risk in diff areas influence prey's choices in home range intermediate - spatial variation risks within home range will affect prey's space use fine - direct presence of predators = prey reactive avoidance and anti-predator behaviours

Answer 59

suppression - removes opportunity for competition over breeding (eg. naked male rats limit breeding to just the queen and several kings in the nest chamber while subordinates don't ovulate) - female dominance is maintain by stress-mediated hormone suppression - males police each other through nose shoving senescence - reduced reproduction capacity as organisms age (related to cell deterioration, older = high risk so they become helpers instead)

Answer 60

ecology - effects of predation threats to behaviour landscape - physical landscape effects perception of threat (physical is like amt of escape routes etc) - predation landscape is actual threat of predators in area

Answer 61

proactive (adjusted to reduce risk and leads to passive social defence or land use) active (adjusted when threat is imminent)

Answer 62

- actively searching for, responding to, or attacking predators (mobbing) - is costly and risks injury or attraction of more predators vigilance - addition eyes to search for predators (subordinate help) - can be cooperative between specifics (oxpecker bird onyx of rhino)

Answer 63

Dilution effect hypothesis: - being in a group = individuals are less likely to be hunted Confusion effect hypothesis: moving as a group reduces likelihood of predation cause they can't single them out Selfish herd hypothesis: individuals in a group reduce risk by using others as a barrier (putting someone else between u and the door in case of burglar)

Answer 64

humans are a form of super predators (overhunts a species compared to regular predation) anti-behaviour - increased vigilance, grouping behaviour, permanent avoidance - this leads to reduction in foraging and few offsprings

Answer 65

when single strategy for a population can't be invaded by a rarer strategy (a set of behavioural rules that when used by a certain percentage of the population cannot be replaced)

Answer 66

- isotopes (C, N, S) naturally occur and show where animals lie in the food web (it accumulates with trophic levels) - C distinquishs between food sources - S reflects habitat use

Answer 67

* Habitat alteration and destruction * Resource exploitation * Human-introduced species * Climate change and environmental stressors * Behavioural conditioning * Ecological contaminants * Agricultural practices * Cultural and historical exploitation

Answer 68

abiotic factors - climate, topography, resource availability biotic factors - predation risk, reproduction, competition intrinsic factors - learned behaviours (preferences based off experience and social interactions) - genetic predisposition - personality (aggressive species that do better in this area?)

Answer 69

defence of an area costs: - time/energy/injury or death benefits: - access to resources, survival, better fitness why it ends: - arbitrary contrast resolution: residents always win - resource-holding potential: residents have an edge in combat -payoff asymmetry: residents who temporary leave for less than 3 mins can fight off intruders, the longe they're away, the longer they have to fight to reclaim territory

Answer 70

- aggression is associated w/plasma androgen hormones (testosterone) winner effect - success in aggressive fights for mates/territoy enhances fitness (testosterone levels are a deciding factor)

Answer 71

male/male interactions increases testosterone and sustain aggressive behaviour - developed to explain trad off between completion and parent care - testosterone only increases for short periods of challenging

Answer 72

Anthropocene - human activities major influence on ecosystem (climate change, land-use, pollutants) - humans alter biotic interactions (invasive species, harvesting, urbanization)

Answer 73

- animals use it to adapt to the environment - changes in animal behaviour affects its role in ecosystem - understanding this is essential for effective conservation actions

Answer 74

timescapes: - captures variation in predation risk, seasonal changes etc - humans creat changes that affect timing of predators, competitors etc - sensory pollutants may disrupt stimuli animals use to structure their timing (artificial light to turtles) daily timing: changes behaviour based on timescales

Answer 75

- effects individuals and whole ecosystems - individual level effects include physiology - community level: increase or diminishes competition, predation, disease spread - pop level = altered activity timing will lower recruitment of ecosystem stability, prey forage at diff times then predators go hunting) - ecosystem level = changes nutrient flows if it disrupts processes like herbivory

Answer 76

low latitude human chaos affect larger ecological affects human recreation leads to lynx cats becoming more nocturnal temperature Changes = flies shift activity level under high temps sensory pollutants (eg. lights) confuses birds and make them more active at night around light pollutants (cause they still think its day) habitat changes make small mice more active in invasive areas

Answer 77

- allows for newer approaches to study broader ranges of species by making unbiased tracking easier - eg we use to visually observe and track but now we have sensors that track and record for us (seism sensing (measuring sound vibrations is more accurate now))

Week 6-end Flashcards

(101 cards)