Week 7 - 13 Final exam Flashcards
(413 cards)
1
Q
What is the Reminiscence Bump?
A
the finding that people over 40 have enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other points in their life
1
Q
Semantic Network Approach
A
Proposes that concepts are arranged in networks
1
Q
What is Plyshyn’s Imagery debate?
A
a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, or propositional mechanisms
1
Q
Reading a list of words and non-words and saying “yes” when you read a word is an activity called a __ __ task?
A
Lexical decision task
1
Q
Mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases is called ___?
A
Parsing
1
Q
Rehearsal and high emotion events can strengthen ___ memories?
A
Flashbulb
1
Q
The Gestalt psychologists called the process of changing the problem’s representation: ____
A
Restructuring
1
Q
The process of making choices between alternatives is are called _____
A
Decisions
1
Q
Anytime we make a prediction about what will happen based on our observations about what has happened, we are using ____ reasoning
A
inductive
1
Q
What perspective do you use for recent memories?
A
Field perspective
1
Q
Autobiographical memory has ____, _____ and sensory components
A
Spatial; emotional
1
Q
Source monitoring errors are important because the _____ responsible for them are also involved in creating memories in general
A
Mechanisms
1
Q
Prototypical objects are more susceptible to _____
A
Priming
1
Q
When we replace one word with a similar word possibly with the same number of syllables is called word _____
A
substitution
3
Q
Comprehension, speech production, representation, and acquisition are the 4 major concerns of the field of ___?
A
Psycholinguistics
3
Q
What type of experiment is used in studying flashbulb memories?
A
Repeated Recall
4
Q
___ is the system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences
A
Language
4
Q
When people use past experience to guide behaviour, they often use ____ to help them reach conclusions rapidly
A
shortcuts
4
Q
Does representativeness generally hold for small samples?
A
no
4
Q
Context is very important in understanding _____
A
language
4
Q
What is Anological Encoding?
A
Teaching people to compare and notice source and target problem similarities
5
Q
Typicality effect?
A
Smith found that the ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly
5
Q
Typicality effect?
A
Smith found that the ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly
6
Q
What is the big difference between the Exemplar and Prototype approach
A
Prototypes are not real, but just averages. But Exemplars are actual things
6
The __ \_\_ __ occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of the phoneme is covered by an extraneous variable?
Phonemic Restoration Effect
7
Things in a category resemble one another in a number of ways is known as __ \_\_ (hint, micaly, beth, mum)
Family resemblance
7
Language is primarily used for\_\_\_?
Communication
7
An important aspect of human behaviour is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people: this is called ____ exchange theory
Social Exchange Theory
8
A decision making stragergy that is governed by taking risks is called Risk-\_\_\_\_ stratergy
taking
9
Hub and Spoke Model
areas of the brain that are associated with specific functions are connected to the Anterior Temporal Lobe, which serves as a hub that integrates the information from these areas
9
Problem solving for the Gestalt Psychologists, was about 1: how people ___ a problem in their mind, and 2: how solving a problem involves a _____ or restructuring of this representation
Represent; reorganisation
10
misinformation effect
Misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person describes that event later
11
What is am epiphenomenon?
something that accompanies the real mechanism but not actually part of the mechanism
11
The Conjunction Rule is a characteristic of the ____ heuristic
Representativeness Heuristic
11
When the Wason Four-Card problem is stated in real world terms, performance \_\_\_\_
increases
12
Wittgenstein’s Family Resemblance
family resemblances refer to the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways
12
Good reasoning and truth (are/are not) the same thing
Are not
12
Prototypicality can be ____ or \_\_\_\_
high or low
12
What are Word exchanges?
I have to put car in my petrol on the way home.
Changing words in a sentence
13
Family reseblance is used in what approach to categorisation?
Definitional Approach
14
The smallest units of language that has meaning or grammatical function are called \_\_\_\_
Morphemes
15
What are the two types of syllogisms?
Categorical and Conditional
16
The ______ heuristic states that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties usually associated with class B
Representativenss
16
Anxious people tend to avoid making decisions that could potentially lead to large negative consequences, a respone called ___ avoidance
risk
16
The purpose of langauge is to _____ with others, and the need to ________ is strong
Communicate x2
17
The fact that some words occur more than others is know as ___ dominance
Meaning
18
The rapid electrical respose recorded with small disc electrodes that are placed on a persons scalp is called __ \_\_ __ (erp)
Event-related potential
18
The tendency to avoid risks is called risk \_\_\_\_
aversion
18
What is a phoneme exchange?
Fost instead of Frog in a sentence instead of Frost and Fog
19
The process by which people use similar grammatical construction is called __ \_\_
Syntactic coordination
20
Deteriming where a memory, belief, or knowledge came from is known as?
Source Monitoring
20
What area of the brain was studied to conclude that emotions influence decision making?
the prefrontal cortex
20
The tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is beleivable is known as ____ bias
Belief
20
What does psycholinguistics study?
Comprehension;Speech production; Representation; Acquistion
20
Do phonemes by themselves have meaning?
No
20
What are the three types of inferences in regards to understanding texts and stories?
Anaphoric; Instrumental; Causal
21
An actual memeber of a category is an \_\_\_?
Examplar
21
The two features or language are?
Language is a heirarchical system; Language is governed by rules
21
\_\_\_\_ can often clear up lexical ambiguity
Context
22
Basic Principle of Connectionism?
A stimulus presented to the input units is represented by a pattern of activity that is distributed across the other units
23
What is the Definitional Approach to categorisation?
we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category
24
Can context affect decision making?
Yes, this was proven by Shens physician and ceacerian experiment and Danziger's parole judges experiment
25
\_\_\_\_- Fixedness is one type of fixation
Functional
25
The **Ultimate Game** involves two players, one designated as the ____ and one as the \_\_\_\_\_
Proposer; responder
26
What is mental imagery?
the ability to recreate the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli, also occurs in senses other than vision
26
Sentences which begin to mean one thing but then end up meaning something else are called __ \_\_ \_\_?
Garden Path Sentences
26
If people have all of the relevant infomation, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility is known as expected ____ theory
utility
27
The ___ category approach proposes that there are specific neural circuits in the brain for some specific categories
Semantic
28
Our knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience is called a...?
Schema
28
The \_\_-\_\_ contract states that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of infomation: 1 *Given infomation*: infomation that the listener already knows; and 2 *New information:* infomation that the listener is hearing for the first time
Given-new
29
Shortest segments of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of the word are called \_\_\_\_
Phonemes
30
Who stated that there is a average prototype of what you experience of a category but does not actually exist?
Eleanor Rosch
31
Our knowledge about words is stored in our Our knowledge about words is stored in our \_\_?
Lexicon
32
Tversky and Kahneman concluded that when a choice is framed in *gains,* people use a risk ___ stratergy. When a choice is framed in *losses*, people use a risk ___ stratergy
Aversion; Taking
33
Source Monitoring?
the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs.
33
What is propositional representation?
relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation, or a statement.
34
How many morphemes does bedroom have; does hattrick have; and truck have?
2;2;1
34
Phillip johnson-Laird Suggested the ____ model approach to solving whether a syllogism is right or wrong
Mental Model Approach
35
Periods of rapid change followed by stability cause memory encoding to be stronger. This is known as the ___ hypothesis?
Cognitive Hypothesis
37
What is parsing?
Mentalling grouping words in a sentence into phrases
37
Memory, or remembering what we need to do in the future is:
* Event based memory
* Prospective
* Autobiographical
* Time-based
Prospective
38
What model associated with understanding text and stories includes: representation of events as if experiencing the situation, and point of view of the protagonist?
Situational Model
39
What are the two types of perspectives in Autobiographical Memory?
Field perspective; Observer Perspective
41
To important elements of syllogisms are ____ and truth
Validity
42
All pigeons are birds
All birds have wings
All pigeons have wings
Is this a valid or invalid categorical syllogism?
Valid
42
The memory of patients who have suffered brain damage that causes a loss of visual memory, but without causing blindness, illustrates the importantce of the ____ component of AM
Sensory
43
using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem is called __ \_\_ solving
Analogical Problem Solving
44
In regards to reading, ___ or determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the infomation provided by the text?
Inferences
44
\_\_\_\_ has also been linked to improved memory consolidation
Emotion
45
What is Conceptual Knowledge?
knowledge that enables us to recognise objects and events and to make inferences about their properties
45
Connection weights...
determine how signals sent from one unit either increase of decrease the activity of the next unit in the line (hidden, or output)
46
What is unilateral neglect?
the patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field.
48
(Phonemes/Morphemes) refer to sounds while (Phonemes/Morphemes) refer to meaning
Phonemes; Morphemes
49
What experiment is Cheves Perky famous for?
Asking participants to mentally imagine a visual image, but actually exposed participants to a projected image (mistake actual picture to be a mental image)
50
Flashbulb Memory?
A person’s memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events (how a person heard about an event)
50
Newell and Simons approach (\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_ approach) states that problem solving involves a searh
Infomation-processing approach
52
An important property to any narrative is \_\_\_?
Coherence
52
Restructuring is associated with \_\_\_: the sudden realisation of a problems solution
Insight
52
A person's mood can affect economic \_\_\_\_
Decisions
52
What two reasons make language universal?
The purpose of language is to communicate with other people; The need to communicate is strong
53
The law of large numbers is a variable in _____ heuristics
Representativeness
54
Source monitoring errors are also called source \_\_\_\_\_\_
misattributions
55
What is Transcranial Magnetic stimulation?
powerful but brief, magnetic pulse that produces temporary current in a small area of the brains surface
56
The first two statements in a syllogism are called the _____ while the last statement is called the \_\_\_\_\_
Premises; Conclusion
56
What is the goal of Means-end Analysis?
To reduce the differences between the initial and goal states
57
Schema
a person’s knowledge about some aspect of the environment
58
A prototype or a exemplar contains the most salient features of an object?
Prototype
58
When Smith used the sentence verification technique, he found that objects high in ______ were judged more rapidly
prototypicality
58
What approach to Parsing sentences includes: Grammatical strucutre of sentences to determine parsing; Late Closure (parser assumes new word is part of the current phrase; Garden Path Model?
Syntax-First Approach to parsing
59
\_\_\_\_\_ are best for small groups with large variation of concepts
Exemplars
60
The idea that information provided by both syntax and semantics is taken into account simultaniously as we read or listen to a sentence is called the ___ approach?
Interactionist
61
Patients which create meaningless speech that are also unable to understand speech and writing are diagnosed with ___ Apasia?
Wernicke's
62
Cognitive Economy
a feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network,
63
What was important about Shepard and Metzler's mental chronometry ?
it was the first experiment to apply quantitative methods to visual imagery
63
The ___ \_\_\_\_ effect refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognise when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a non-word
Word Superiority
65
What experimental task is the falsification principle associated with?
Wason's Four-Card Problem
66
Slow, laboured, ungrammatical speech caused by damage to Broca's area is called __ \_\_?
Broca's Aphasia
67
The process by which two problems are compared and similarites between them are determined is called ___ coding?
Analogical
67
Who posited that human language coded in the genes and that the underlying basis of all language is similar?
Noam Chomsky
67
\_\_\_\_ ____ are that events more easily remembered are judged as more probalbe than those harder to remember
Availibility Heuristic
68
Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence are called ___ inferences?
Anaphoric inferences
69
The \_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_ hypothesis stats that our ability to differentiate livings things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function
sensory-functional hypothesis
70
Periods of rapid change followed by stability cause memory encoding to be stronger....this lifespan hypothesis of memory is the??
Cognitive hypothesis
72
Which level is psychologically special to Rosch
The basic Level
73
Phonemic restoration, words isolated from conversational speech, speech segmentation and word superiority are all effects which emphasies the ___ in our perception.?
Context
74
What are the advantages of constructing memory?
Understanding languagel Fill in the blanks; Solve problems; Make decisions
76
Skinner proposed in "Verbal Behaviour" that language is learned through \_\_\_?
Reinforcement
77
The principle of __ \_\_ states that when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible?
Late closure
77
The result of Kremer's experiemnt show that the inability to correctly ____ the emotional outcome of a decision can lead to inefficient decision making
Predict
78
What is an exemplar?
Actual member of a category that a person has encountered in the past
80
Are some events in a human life going to be remembered more than others?
Yes
81
What are the building blocks of words?
Morphemes and Phonemes
81
Focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object is called \_\_\_\_-fixedness?
Functional
82
The rules for combining words into sentences is called \_\_\_?
Syntax
84
Inferences about tools or methods are called ___ inferences?
Instrument inferences
85
More than one possible structure or meaning in sentence, which is caused when there are multiple ways of parsing, this is called ____ \_\_\_\_
Syntactic Ambiguity
86
The __ \_\_ effect refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognise when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a nonword?
word superiority
88
The two properties of language - __ and __ endow humans with the ability to go far beyond the fixed calls and signs of animals to communicate whatver we want to express
a heirarchical structure; rules
90
Greenberg and Rubin found that patients who had lost their ability to recognize objects or to visualise objects, because of damage to visual areas of the cortex, also expereiend loss of \_\_\_
Autobiographical Memory?
90
\_\_\_\_\_ of observations, _____ of observations, and ____ of observations all affect the stregnth of an inductive argument
Representativenss; Number; Qualitiy
92
One of the basic priniciples behind the mental model of reasoning is that: a conclusion is valid only if it cannot be _____ by any model of the premises
Refuted
93
Examplar approach to categorisation is used (in initial/ in later) (small/large groups) categorisation, while Prototype appoach is used (in initial/in later) categorisation with (small/large) groups
Initial/smaller groups; Later/Larger groups
93
Lynn Frazier' s \_\_-\_\_ approach to parsing proposed that as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is goverend by a number of rules that are based on syntax
Syntax-first
94
One type of syllogism called *modus ponens* is latin for: the way that affirms by \_\_\_\_\_\_
Affirming
95
A syllogism that is *valid* indicates that its conclusion follows ___ from its two premises
logically
96
While the ______ heuristic is related to how *often* we expect events to occur, the ______ heuristic is realted ot the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event resembles another event
Availability; Representativeness
97
What is Tacit knowledge explanation?
it states that subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world making their judgements
98
Four proposals of how concepts are represented in the brain
The sensory-functional hypothesis, The semantic category approach, The multiple-factor approach, The embodied approach
98
The process of connecting objects/people is called
Anaphorics
99
\_\_\_\_ four-card problem is a conditional reasoning task that involves 4 cards
Wason's
100
Newell and Simon (1972) saw problems in terms of an ___ state: conditions at the beginning of the problem, and a ___ state: the solution of the problem
Initial; Goal
101
What are semantics?
The meaning or words and sentences
102
When words have two or more meanings it is known as __ dominance?
Biased
103
If something is high in prototypicality, then it has (low/high) family resemblance?
High
104
Personal ____ have also been related to decision making
qualities
104
A syllogisms form determines its
Validity
104
The _____ approach to categories in the brain states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object
Embodied
106
The tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes is called the ____ bias
myside
107
Retroactive interference and source monitoring errors are two proposed explanations of the phenomenon of ___ \_\_\_
False memory
107
Making a compartison in order to show a similarity between two different things is called an \_\_\_?
Analogy
108
Semantics can influence processing as we read a sentence is suggested by the ____ approach?
Interactionist
109
Reasoning based on obeservations, or reaching conclusions from evidence is called ____ reasoning
inductive
111
Availiability heuristic, Illusory correlation, Representatiness heuristic, Base rate, Conjunction rule, Law of Large Numbers, Myside bias, and confirmation bias are all potential sources of error in making \_\_\_\_
Judgments
113
Illusory ____ occur when we expect two things to be related, so we fool ourselves into thinking they are related when they are not
correlations
114
Things in a category resemble one another in a number of ways: this is known as...
Famility resemblance
116
Informing witness' that perpertrator might not be in the lineup, Use fillers in lineup similar to suspect, use sequential presentation, and improving interviewing techniques (cognitive interviews, blind interviewers) are all ways to improve the accuracy of __ \_\_?
Eye witness testimonies
117
\_\_\_\_ refers to outcomes that achieve a person's goals
utility
118
\_\_\_\_ are often association with "special events" that are consolidated in memory
Emotions
119
Reading a sentence leads us to expect something not explicitly stated is reffered to?
Pragmatic inference
120
The tendency to make decisions that avoid risk is called Risk \_\_\_\_
Aversion
121
Which level is psychologically special to Rosch
The basic Level
121
The ____ rate is the relevant proportion of different classes in the population
base rate
123
Research shows that people are often better at judging the validity of syllogisms when real-world ___ are substituted for abstract symbols
examples
123
The experiement involving "I am" statements and identity was used to posit what lifespan memory hypothesis?
Self-Image Hypothesis
124
Our knowledge, Experience, and Expectations all effect the ____ nature of \_\_\_\_\_
Constructive; Memory
125
Out of Gicks and Holyoak's analogous theory of Noticing, Mapping, and Applying. Which is the hardest?
Noticing
127
Cultural expectations for when major life events occur provide a structure which makes recall easier. This is called the __ \_\_-\_\_ hypothesis
Cultural life-script hypothesis
128
The process of drawing conclusions is called \_\_\_\_
Reasoning
129
(well-defined/ill-defined) problems usually have a correct answer, and applying certain procedures leads to a solution (math problems etc.); (well-defined/ill-defined) occur frequently, do not necessarily have one ‘correct’ answer.
Well-Defined/Ill-Defined
129
The idea that the words *all, some* or *no* create a mood or atmosphere that affects judgement of conclusion is called the _____ effect
atmosphere
130
words all, some, no create a mood or atmosphere that affects judgement of conclusion is known as the ____ effect
Atmosphere
132
Basic Principle of Connectionism?
A stimulus presented to the input units is represented by a pattern of activity that is distributed across the other units
133
Inferences that events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a precious sentence are called ___ inferences?
Causal
134
What approach to categorisation takes into account 'atypical' members of a category?
Exemplar approach
136
The solution if often unclear in a (well-defined/ill-defined) problem
Ill-defined
136
One of the characteristics of inductive reasoning is that conclusions we reach are \_\_\_, but not definately true
probably
137
The probability of a conjunction of two events (A and B) cannot be higher than the probabiliy of the single constituents (A alone of B alone) is known as the ____ rule
Conjuction Rule
138
The premises of ____ \_\_\_\_\_ are based on observations and we generalise from these cases to more general conclusions with varying degress of certainty
Inductive Reasoning
140
Explain Wason's Four-Card Problem
\>\>\>\>
141
What are Kreiman's Imagery Neurons?
A type of category-specific neutron that is activated by imagery
143
Researchers focus on __ and __ of __ as the two main aspects of speech errors
Frequency and Patters of errors
144
Rimmele found that ____ can increase general memory but decrease memory for \_\_\_\_\_
emotion; details
146
A standard representation of a category (average member of a category) is a \_\_\_?
Prototype
147
What is the cognitive economy?
Shared properties stored at higher level node, exceptions at lower level nodes
149
Determining category membership based on whether the object meets the definition of the category is known as the ___ \_\_\_?
Defitional approah
150
A mental representation of what a text is about is involed in what model associated with understanding text and stories?
Situational Model:
151
How many words on average does an adult know?
50,000
153
Making inferences, creating situation models, link between action words and brain activity, and prediction based on knowledge of a situation are all aids in helping us understand ___ and \_\_\_?
Texts, and stories
154
\_\_\_\_\_ are named first, identified more quickly, and are more susceptible to priming
Prototypes
155
Wittgenstein’s Family Resemblance
family resemblances refer to the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways
157
The frequency in which a word appears in a language is called __ \_\_?
Word frequency
158
\_\_\_\_\_ inference occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated of implied by the sentence
Pragmatic
160
Newell and Simon described problem solving as a ___ that occurs between the posing of the problem and its solution
Search
161
What is the image thought debate?
the debate about whether thought it possible in the absence of images
163
The approach that combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involves potential gains and losses is called \_\_\_\_\_
Neuroeconomics
164
The frequency of a word and lexical ambiguity affect how we ___ words
understand
166
What are two characteristics of AM?
1: it is multidimensional 2: we remember some events better than others
167
What is the exemplar approach?
involves determining whether an object is similar to other objects, however the standard for the exemplar approach involves many examples, each one called an exemplar
168
Our (Target/Source) problem is the problem with have previously confronted in the past; Our (Target/Source) problem is the current problem
Source;Target
170
What two explanations have been proposed for the misinformation effect?
Retroactive interference, and source monitoring
171
People who have damage to the prefrontal cortex have imparied ____ making skills
decision
172
\_\_\_\_ ____ is the production of a specific grammatical construction by one person increases chances other people will use that same construction
Syntactic Priming
173
Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem is called ___ transfer?
Analogical
175
What is a psychological concept?
the mental representation of a class or individual
176
Newells and Simon: problem solving involves a \_\_\_
Search
177
The __ \_\_ effect refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words than to low frequency words?
Word frequency
178
Conversations go more smoothly when the participants bring ___ knowledge.
Shared
178
What are the four barriers to problem solving?
Irrelevant or Misleading Infomation; Assumptions; Mental Sets; Functional Fixedness
180
Lerner's Highlighter experiement suggested that digust is associated with the need to ____ things while sad emotions are associated with a need for \_\_\_\_\_
Expel; Change
182
Memories are created by a process of?
Construction
182
The N is N400 and P in P600 stand for ...?
Negative and Positive
184
\_\_\_\_\_ correlations occur when a correlation between two events appears to exist, but in realitiy there is no correlation or it is much weaker than it is assumed to be
Illusory correlation
185
understanding language, filling in the blanks, solving problems, and making decisions are all advantages of __ \_\_?
Constructive memory
186
The Gestalt approach states that success in solving a problem is influenced by how it is ___ in the person’s mind
Represented
187
\_\_\_\_ syllogism typically use *p and q* instead of A and B like _____ syllogisms
Conditional; Categorical
188
Making judgements, making decisions and ____ are all interrelated
reasoning
189
Lexicon is.....
all the words a person understands
190
Michael ___ (1995) developed the visual world paradigm?
Tanenhaus
192
Hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a sentence will be produced with the same construction is a phenomenon known as ___ \_\_\_?
syntactic priming
193
Chomsky beleived that languged was coded into human \_\_\_?
Genes
195
The ___ of in which we hear about letters or words affects our perception of them, also the ___ we bring into the context also affects our perception?
Context; Knowledge
197
One type of syllogism called *modus tollens* means: the way that denies by \_\_\_\_
Denying
199
What is Plyshyn's Imagery debate?
a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, or propositional mechanisms
201
Is a *Modus Tollens* syllogism valid?
Yes
202
What is am epiphenomenon?
something that accompanies the real mechanism but not actually part of the mechanism
203
People's judgements are affected by the way ____ are stated
Choices
204
syllogism is seen to be valid when the conclusion concurs with our beliefs ; this is known as the ____ bias
Belief Bias
205
Noninsight problems (involve/do not involve) a more methodical process than insight problems
Involve; Yes they are more methodial
205
Representativeness of observations, number of observations, and quality of the evidence all contribute to the stregnth of an ___ argument
inductive
205
\_\_\_\_ memory dominates autobiographical memory
Episodic
207
What are the two main properties of sentences?
Syntax and Semantics
208
Determining whether a conclusion *logically flows* from a statements called premises is known as ____ reasoning
Deductive
209
"rules of thumb" that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem but are not foolproof are known as \_\_\_\_
Heuristics
210
The ___ lobe is the home of Broca's area
Frontal
211
Cognitive Hypothesis
that periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories
212
What field studies psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language?
Psycholinguistics
213
The tendency to do nothing when faced with a decision is called the ___ \_\_\_ bias
Status quo bias
215
Can emotions play a role in decision making?
Yes
217
The knowledge, attitudes, and preconceptions alongside heuristics that people bring to a situation influence \_\_\_\_
Judgment
218
Does categorical or conditional syllogisms start with 'if'?
conditional
219
What three things affect the remembering of flashbulb memory?
Emotions, Rehersal, Media
221
The \_\_\_-\_\_\_ ____ proposes that memory is enchanced for events that occur as a person's self-image or life identity is being formed
Self-Image Hypothesis
222
what three factors effect Flashbulb Memory?
Emotion, Media, Rehearsal
223
What are Kreiman's Imagery Neurons?
A type of category-specific neutron that is activated by imagery
224
P is the _____ and q is the _____ in a conditional syllogism?
Antecedent; Consequent
225
The probability that event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles properties of B, this is called the ___ \_\_\_
representativeness heuristic
227
Cultural life script hypothesis
The idea that events in a person’s life story become easier to recall when they fit the cultural life script for that person’s culture
228
Determining where we acquired a memory, knowledge or belief is known as ____ \_\_\_\_
Source Monitoring
229
What reduces the conceptual load in conversations?
Syntactic Priming
230
Factors of real world knowledge that affect memory
Schemas and scripts, Making Inference, False recall and Recognition
231
What is the given new contract?
Speaker constructs sentences so they include: given infomation; new infomation; and new can then become given information
231
If A is satisfied, then B can be carried out...this is an example of a ____ \_\_\_\_
Permission Schema
233
The existence of multiple word meanings is called __ \_\_?
Lexical ambiguity
235
Errors are not random, there are patterns/rules involved; This is proposed by somthing called __ of \_\_?
patterns of errors
237
Premises and conclusions that all start with *all, no,* or *some* are called _____ syllogisms
Categorical
238
If both preimises are true the ____ will be true as well
Conclusion
239
Neisser's Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis
That we remember some live events better because we rehearse them
240
What brain structure is involved in the emotional recall of memory?
Amygdala
241
The _____ heuristics states that events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more porbable than events that are elss easily remembered
Availability heuristic
242
Our knowledge about a sequence of actions that occur in a particular experience is called a...?
Script
243
When words are taken out of context and presented alone are they harder or easier to understand?
Harder; more difficult
245
Decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated or framed is called the ____ effect
framing
246
How our knowledge of the meaning of words effects our speech perception is another example of __ \_\_ Processing?
`Top-Down
247
Our ability to percieve words even though there are often no pauses between words in the sound signal is called __ \_\_?
Speech segmentation
248
A ____ is an oversimplified generalisation about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative
stereotype
249
What is the Word Superiority Effect?
refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognise when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a non-word
250
The idea that people can ____ situations is the basis of Johnson-Laird's proposal that people use the mental model to solve deductive reasoning problems
Imagine
251
Who applied mental scanning?
Stephen Kosslyn
252
Event based memory and time-based memory are both types of ___ memory?
Prospective
253
The "own-photos" in Cabeza's study caused more activation in what areas of the brain?
Prefrontal Cortex; Hippocampus
254
\_\_\_ fixedness; ___ sets; Irrelevant or ____ infomations; and assumptions are four barriers to problem solving
Functional; Mental; Misleading
255
\_\_\_\_ neurons are neurons that fire when we do a task or when we observe another doing that same task
Mirror
257
What was important about Shepard and Metzler's mental chronometry ?
it was the first experiment to apply quantitative methods to visual imagery
258
What approach uses a standard representation of a category? or an 'average'?
the prototype approach
259
Familiarity, Arousal, Attention, Suggest, and confidence are all factors that effect __ \_\_?
Eye witness testimonies
260
What are the two approaches to parsing?
The Syntax-First Approach; The Interactionist Approach
262
Uri Simonsohn's "clouds make nerds look good" found that applicants academic attributes were more heavily weighted on (Sunny/Cloudy) days than on (Sunny/Cloudy) days
Cloudy/Sunny
264
A large representative sample of utterances or written text from a particular language is called a \_\_\_?
Corpus
265
Rosch stated that prototypicality could be; high; low; or both?
Both
266
There is a strong relationship with protoypicality and ___ \_\_\_
Family resemblance
267
How well do the observations about a particular category represent all of the members of a category is known as Representativeness of \_\_\_\_
observations
268
What are the three distinct steps of Anological Problem Solving?
Noticing; Mapping; Applying
270
\_\_\_\_\_ syllogisms have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form "if....then"
Conditional
272
Determining whether a conclusion logically flows from a statements called ____ is known as deductive reasoning
Premises
274
\_\_\_\_\_ are created by a process of construction, which is based on what actually happened combined with other things that have happened and out general knowledge about how things usually happen
Memories
276
What is an exemplar?
Actual member of a category that a person has encountered in the past
278
A ____ occurs when there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
Problem
279
\_\_\_\_\_ syllogisms describe a relationship using the words all, no, or some
Categorical syllogisms
281
The speaker's mutual knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions are know as __ \_\_
Common ground
283
Can emotions that are not even related to making the decision affect a decision?
Yes
284
We are better at judging the validity of syllogisms when they are real ____ syllogism
World
286
Psycholinguistics?
The field of psychology concerned with the psychological study of language
287
The __ \_\_ paradigm involves determinging how subjects process infomation as they are observing a visual scene
Visual word paradigm
289
When a word has more than one meaning but the meanings have about the same dominance is called ___ dominance?
Balanced
290
Our ___ \_\_\_ schemas are our way of thinking about cause and effect in the world (we learn from it every day).
Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas
291
What is Paivio's Conceptual peg hypothesis?
concrete nouns create images that other words can “hang onto”
292
What are the two types of perspecitive when remembering the past?
Field and Observer perspective
293
The role of parsing is determining the ___ of a sentence?
Meaning
294
The ____ approach to categorisation states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with that object
Embodied Approach
295
Language makes it possible to create new sentences because is has a structure that is ____ and goverend by \_\_\_
Heirarchical; rules
296
\_\_\_\_\_\_ coordination amongst speakers is using similar grammatical constructions
Syntactic
298
\_\_\_ is the representation of the text in a person's mind so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text?
Coherence
298
The way a ____ is presented is also important when a person is forced to pick one alternative or another
Choice
299
Which subbranch of psychologists first introduced the study of problem solving to psychology?
Gestalt Psychologists
301
Two types of lifespan memory
Autobiographical memory and prospective memory
302
One component of Means-End Analysis- subgoals- creates _____ states closer to the goal
intermediate
303
Misleading infomation presented after a person witnesses an event can change how that person describes the event later. This is known as?
The misinfomation effect
304
The technique of comparing later memories to memries collected immediatly after the event is called ___ \_\_\_
Repeated Recall
305
The most common form of language production is \_\_\_?
Conversation
306
What is Autobiographical memory?
Memory for specific events that can include semantic and episodic components
307
One of the most powerful effects of emotion on decision making involves ____ emotions
expected
308
A Opt-\_\_ procedure is where a person must take an active step to choose a course of action
Opt-In
309
According to Newell and Simon, ____ are actions that take the problem from one state to another
Operators
310
The field of psychology concerned with the pscyhological study of language is \_\_\_?
Psycholinguistics
312
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (1974) studied the representativenss \_\_\_\_
Heuristic
314
The cognitive hypothesis of the reminscent bump found that emmigrants to America that emmigrated at age 20-24, their reminiscent bump occured at a _____ age, but emmigrants that emmigrated at age 34-35, their reminiscent bump occured at a ____ age
Normal; Later
315
Mental set can influence problem solving both because of preconceptions about the ____ of an object, and because of preconceptions about the way to ___ a problem
functions; solve
317
How many proposed systems are there in the Dual Systems Approach
Two: system 1 and system 2
318
Frequency and Patterns of error are the two errors of \_\_\_\_
Speech
320
When you replace one word with a similar word possible with the same number of syllables is called __ \_\_
Word substitution
321
Is language universal?
yes, it occurs wherever there are people
322
How a problem is ___ can affect its difficulty
stated
323
The myside bias is a type of ____ bias
Confirmation
324
If a person satisfies a specific condition (being of legal drinking age), then he or she gets to carry out an action (being served alcohol) this is know as a ____ schema
Permission
326
\_\_\_ exchanges and ___ exchanges are two common types of speech errors
Phoneme and word
327
\_\_\_\_\_ reasoning is the basis of scientific investigations in which observations are made
inductive
328
What approach to categorisation would you be using if the details were: tall, green, leaves, branches?
The definitional approach to categorisation
329
Personal milestones, Transitional points, and Highly emotional states are things that we (do/do not) remember well (the best) ?
Do. We remember these very well
330
people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution is called \_\_\_?
Fixation
332
what is the Prototype approach?
membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category
333
Protoypical objects are ____ first, _____ more quickly (typicality effect), and more susceptible to \_\_\_\_\_
Named; Identified; priming
334
Noticing, ____ and Applying were the three phases of analogous thinking proposed by Gick and Holyoak
Mapping
335
The given-new contract, common ground, and syntactic coordination are all aids in \_\_\_
Conversations
336
Brocas area has been linked to:
1. Syntax
2. Semantics
3. Occipetal lobe
4. Language production?
Syntax
337
The filling in of phonemes based on context of sentence and portion of word presented is called?
The phonemic restoration effect
338
Thus, __ \_\_ is determined both by people's expertise and by the exchange of information during the coversation?
Common ground
339
Pragmatic inference
when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or implied by the sentence
340
Syntax and Semantics are the two main properties of \_\_\_?
Sentences
341
What are the two heuristics in inductive reasoning?
Availibility and Representativeness Heuristics
343
The ___ lobe is home to Wernicke's area
Temporal
344
Cognitive Economy
a feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network,
345
The basic principle behind ____ models is that people create a model, or representation of the situation, for a reasoning problem
Mental Models
346
\_\_\_\_\_ approach is best for large groups with not much variation in regards to concepts
prototype
347
What is visual imagery?
seeing in the absence of a visual stimulus
348
Infomation in any situation is favoured that confrims the individuals hypothesis is called _____ bias
confirmation
350
Wernickes' Area has been linked to:
1. Syntax
2. Parsing
3. Semantics
4. Cerrebellum
Semantics
352
"to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule" this is known as the _____ principle
Falsification principle
353
What is a prototype?
A typical member of a category
354
Stronger evidence results in stronger \_\_\_\_\_
conclusions
355
The ____ heuristic can mislead us into reaching the wrong conclusion when less frequently occuring events stand out in our memory
availability
356
What is the major obstacle of problem solving according to Gestalt psychologists?
Fixation
357
All students are studying
Some studying are working
All students are working
Is this a valid or invalid syllogism
invalid
358
What is unilateral neglect?
the patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field.
359
Language influences thought is posited by the \_\_\_-\_\_\_ hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf
360
What can removing part of the visual cortex result in?
a reduction of what we can see in our visual field
361
Being faced with a more difficult decision can lead to making ___ decision at all
No
362
Concepts are arranged in networks that represent the way concepts are arranged in the mind which involves cognitive economy (shared properties stored at higher level node, expectations at lower nodes) is knows as the __ \_\_ model
Semantic Network
363
Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem is called ____ \_\_\_\_\_ solving
Analogical Problem Solving
364
We experience the major events associated with our self-image during the period of 10 - 30 is known as the \_\_-\_\_ hypothesis?
Self-Image
365
Aristotle created the most basic form of deductive reasoning called the \_\_\_\_
Syllgogism
366
Herbert Clark sees ___ as being central to the understanding of language?
Collaboration
368
The process of noticing connections between similar problems and applying the solution for one problem to other problems is called the method of \_\_\_\_?
Analogy
369
The \_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_ approach to catergorisation states that concepts are represented in the brain by searching for multiple factors that determine how concepts are divided up within a category
Multiple-Factors Approach
370
Syllogisms always contain at least ____ statements
Three
371
The cognitive process of starting with infomation and coming to conclusions that go beyond that infomation is called \_\_\_\_\_
Reasoning
372
\_\_\_ experience plays an important role in AM
Visual
373
What allows us to not be overwhelmed by responding to the almost infinite variety of objects, events, people and impressions in our environment?
Categories
374
One of the primary mechanisms involved in judgements is ____ reasoning
inductive
375
Expected emotions are one of the determinants of ___ aversion
risk
377
The nature of a cultures language can affect the way people think is know as the \_\_\_-\_\_\_ hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf
378
\_\_\_ ambiguity is when there are more than one possible structure or meaning in a sentence
Syntactic
379
What experiment is Cheves Perky famous for?
Asking participants to mentally imagine a visual image, but actually exposed participants to a projected image
380
A ____ model is a specific situation represented in a person's mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning
Mental Model
381
A __ model is a mental representation of what a text is about (Johnson-Laird, 1983)?
Situation
382
Are surface or structual features more helpful?
Structual Features
383
Corpara is the plural of \_\_?
Corpus
384
Who were the two authors in the 1950s which started recent research into language?
Noam Chomsky; B.F. Skinner
386
Three levels of of categories
1 Superordinate (Global), The basic level, The subordinate (specific)
387
Are high prototypicality objects more susceptible to priming?
Yes
388
What is a category?
Includes all possible examples of a particular concept
389
The idea that semantics can influence processing as we read a sentence (its not all about syntax) is part of what approach to parsing?
Interactionist
390
Sanfey's ultimate game experiment is just one example of the _____ approach to decision making
Neuroeconomics approach
391
The first items of a category to be recalled would be A) high prototypicality objects, B) low prototypicality objects
A) high
392
The larger the number of individuals that are drawn randomly from the population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population is knows at the ___ of ____ \_\_\_\_
Law of Large Numbers
393
Script
our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience
394
Brain activity plays a causal role in ___ and perception
Imagery
396
If your conditional syllogism is either affirming the antecedant or denying the consequent is it valid or invalid?
Valid
397
What is mental scanning?
subjects create mental images and then scan them in their minds
398
Is the syllogism *modus ponens* valid?
Yes
399
Constructive Nature of Memory?
what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as a person’s knowledge, experiences, and expectations
401
What is a fairly new way to study decision making?
Neuroeconimics
402
Emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision are called _____ emotions
Incidental
403
Mistaking the source of a memory is known as?
Source monitoring error
404
What is reasoning?
The cognitive process of starting with infomation and coming to conclusiosn that go beyond that infomation
405
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, which is determined by a person’s experience or what has worked in the past is called a ___ set
Mental
406
What are the components of the Problem Space
Initial state; Intermediate state; Goal state
407
The underlying principle that governs the solution is called the ____ feature
Structural
408
An Opt-out procedure is where a person must take an active step to avoid a course of action
Opt-out
409
Emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome are called ____ emotions
expected
410
What is Connectionism?
creating computer models for representing cognitive processes
411
The father of deductive reasoning was \_\_\_\_
Aristotle
412
What is the self-image hypothesis?
that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person’s self-image or life identity is being formed
413
One role of __ is to create connections between parts of a story?
inferences
