Week 7 - 13 Final exam Flashcards
What is the Reminiscence Bump?
the finding that people over 40 have enhanced memory for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other points in their life
Semantic Network Approach
Proposes that concepts are arranged in networks
What is Plyshyn’s Imagery debate?
a debate about whether imagery is based on spatial mechanisms, or propositional mechanisms
Reading a list of words and non-words and saying “yes” when you read a word is an activity called a __ __ task?
Lexical decision task
Mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases is called ___?
Parsing
Rehearsal and high emotion events can strengthen ___ memories?
Flashbulb
The Gestalt psychologists called the process of changing the problem’s representation: ____
Restructuring
The process of making choices between alternatives is are called _____
Decisions
Anytime we make a prediction about what will happen based on our observations about what has happened, we are using ____ reasoning
inductive
What perspective do you use for recent memories?
Field perspective
Autobiographical memory has ____, _____ and sensory components
Spatial; emotional
Source monitoring errors are important because the _____ responsible for them are also involved in creating memories in general
Mechanisms
Prototypical objects are more susceptible to _____
Priming
When we replace one word with a similar word possibly with the same number of syllables is called word _____
substitution
Comprehension, speech production, representation, and acquisition are the 4 major concerns of the field of ___?
Psycholinguistics
What type of experiment is used in studying flashbulb memories?
Repeated Recall
___ is the system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences
Language
When people use past experience to guide behaviour, they often use ____ to help them reach conclusions rapidly
shortcuts
Does representativeness generally hold for small samples?
no
Context is very important in understanding _____
language
What is Anological Encoding?
Teaching people to compare and notice source and target problem similarities
Typicality effect?
Smith found that the ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly
Typicality effect?
Smith found that the ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly
What is the big difference between the Exemplar and Prototype approach
Prototypes are not real, but just averages. But Exemplars are actual things
The __ __ __ occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of the phoneme is covered by an extraneous variable?
Phonemic Restoration Effect
Things in a category resemble one another in a number of ways is known as __ __ (hint, micaly, beth, mum)
Family resemblance
Language is primarily used for___?
Communication
An important aspect of human behaviour is the ability for two people to cooperate in a way that is beneficial to both people: this is called ____ exchange theory
Social Exchange Theory
A decision making stragergy that is governed by taking risks is called Risk-____ stratergy
taking
Hub and Spoke Model
areas of the brain that are associated with specific functions are connected to the Anterior Temporal Lobe, which serves as a hub that integrates the information from these areas
Problem solving for the Gestalt Psychologists, was about 1: how people ___ a problem in their mind, and 2: how solving a problem involves a _____ or restructuring of this representation
Represent; reorganisation
misinformation effect
Misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how the person describes that event later
What is am epiphenomenon?
something that accompanies the real mechanism but not actually part of the mechanism
The Conjunction Rule is a characteristic of the ____ heuristic
Representativeness Heuristic
When the Wason Four-Card problem is stated in real world terms, performance ____
increases
Wittgenstein’s Family Resemblance
family resemblances refer to the idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways
Good reasoning and truth (are/are not) the same thing
Are not
Prototypicality can be ____ or ____
high or low
What are Word exchanges?
I have to put car in my petrol on the way home.
Changing words in a sentence
Family reseblance is used in what approach to categorisation?
Definitional Approach
The smallest units of language that has meaning or grammatical function are called ____
Morphemes
What are the two types of syllogisms?
Categorical and Conditional
The ______ heuristic states that the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles the properties usually associated with class B
Representativenss
Anxious people tend to avoid making decisions that could potentially lead to large negative consequences, a respone called ___ avoidance
risk
The purpose of langauge is to _____ with others, and the need to ________ is strong
Communicate x2
The fact that some words occur more than others is know as ___ dominance
Meaning
The rapid electrical respose recorded with small disc electrodes that are placed on a persons scalp is called __ __ __ (erp)
Event-related potential
The tendency to avoid risks is called risk ____
aversion
What is a phoneme exchange?
Fost instead of Frog in a sentence instead of Frost and Fog
The process by which people use similar grammatical construction is called __ __
Syntactic coordination
Deteriming where a memory, belief, or knowledge came from is known as?
Source Monitoring
What area of the brain was studied to conclude that emotions influence decision making?
the prefrontal cortex
The tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is beleivable is known as ____ bias
Belief
What does psycholinguistics study?
Comprehension;Speech production; Representation; Acquistion
Do phonemes by themselves have meaning?
No
What are the three types of inferences in regards to understanding texts and stories?
Anaphoric; Instrumental; Causal
An actual memeber of a category is an ___?
Examplar
The two features or language are?
Language is a heirarchical system; Language is governed by rules
____ can often clear up lexical ambiguity
Context
Basic Principle of Connectionism?
A stimulus presented to the input units is represented by a pattern of activity that is distributed across the other units
What is the Definitional Approach to categorisation?
we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category
Can context affect decision making?
Yes, this was proven by Shens physician and ceacerian experiment and Danziger’s parole judges experiment
____- Fixedness is one type of fixation
Functional
The Ultimate Game involves two players, one designated as the ____ and one as the _____
Proposer; responder
What is mental imagery?
the ability to recreate the sensory world in the absence of physical stimuli, also occurs in senses other than vision
Sentences which begin to mean one thing but then end up meaning something else are called __ __ __?
Garden Path Sentences
If people have all of the relevant infomation, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility is known as expected ____ theory
utility
The ___ category approach proposes that there are specific neural circuits in the brain for some specific categories
Semantic
Our knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience is called a…?
Schema
The __-__ contract states that a speaker should construct sentences so that they include two kinds of infomation: 1 Given infomation: infomation that the listener already knows; and 2 New information: infomation that the listener is hearing for the first time
Given-new
Shortest segments of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of the word are called ____
Phonemes
Who stated that there is a average prototype of what you experience of a category but does not actually exist?
Eleanor Rosch
Our knowledge about words is stored in our Our knowledge about words is stored in our __?
Lexicon
Tversky and Kahneman concluded that when a choice is framed in gains, people use a risk ___ stratergy. When a choice is framed in losses, people use a risk ___ stratergy
Aversion; Taking
Source Monitoring?
the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs.
What is propositional representation?
relationships can be represented by abstract symbols, such as an equation, or a statement.
How many morphemes does bedroom have; does hattrick have; and truck have?
2;2;1
Phillip johnson-Laird Suggested the ____ model approach to solving whether a syllogism is right or wrong
Mental Model Approach
Periods of rapid change followed by stability cause memory encoding to be stronger. This is known as the ___ hypothesis?
Cognitive Hypothesis
What is parsing?
Mentalling grouping words in a sentence into phrases
Memory, or remembering what we need to do in the future is:
- Event based memory
- Prospective
- Autobiographical
- Time-based
Prospective
What model associated with understanding text and stories includes: representation of events as if experiencing the situation, and point of view of the protagonist?
Situational Model
What are the two types of perspectives in Autobiographical Memory?
Field perspective; Observer Perspective
To important elements of syllogisms are ____ and truth
Validity
All pigeons are birds
All birds have wings
All pigeons have wings
Is this a valid or invalid categorical syllogism?
Valid
The memory of patients who have suffered brain damage that causes a loss of visual memory, but without causing blindness, illustrates the importantce of the ____ component of AM
Sensory
using the solution to a similar problem to guide solution of a new problem is called __ __ solving
Analogical Problem Solving
In regards to reading, ___ or determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the infomation provided by the text?
Inferences
____ has also been linked to improved memory consolidation
Emotion
What is Conceptual Knowledge?
knowledge that enables us to recognise objects and events and to make inferences about their properties
Connection weights…
determine how signals sent from one unit either increase of decrease the activity of the next unit in the line (hidden, or output)
What is unilateral neglect?
the patient ignores objects in one half of the visual field.
(Phonemes/Morphemes) refer to sounds while (Phonemes/Morphemes) refer to meaning
Phonemes; Morphemes
What experiment is Cheves Perky famous for?
Asking participants to mentally imagine a visual image, but actually exposed participants to a projected image (mistake actual picture to be a mental image)
Flashbulb Memory?
A person’s memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events (how a person heard about an event)
Newell and Simons approach (_____-_____ approach) states that problem solving involves a searh
Infomation-processing approach
An important property to any narrative is ___?
Coherence
Restructuring is associated with ___: the sudden realisation of a problems solution
Insight
A person’s mood can affect economic ____
Decisions
What two reasons make language universal?
The purpose of language is to communicate with other people; The need to communicate is strong
The law of large numbers is a variable in _____ heuristics
Representativeness
Source monitoring errors are also called source ______
misattributions
What is Transcranial Magnetic stimulation?
powerful but brief, magnetic pulse that produces temporary current in a small area of the brains surface
The first two statements in a syllogism are called the _____ while the last statement is called the _____
Premises; Conclusion
What is the goal of Means-end Analysis?
To reduce the differences between the initial and goal states
Schema
a person’s knowledge about some aspect of the environment
A prototype or a exemplar contains the most salient features of an object?
Prototype
When Smith used the sentence verification technique, he found that objects high in ______ were judged more rapidly
prototypicality
What approach to Parsing sentences includes: Grammatical strucutre of sentences to determine parsing; Late Closure (parser assumes new word is part of the current phrase; Garden Path Model?
Syntax-First Approach to parsing
_____ are best for small groups with large variation of concepts
Exemplars
The idea that information provided by both syntax and semantics is taken into account simultaniously as we read or listen to a sentence is called the ___ approach?
Interactionist
Patients which create meaningless speech that are also unable to understand speech and writing are diagnosed with ___ Apasia?
Wernicke’s
Cognitive Economy
a feature of some semantic network models in which properties of a category that are shared by many members of a category are stored at a higher level node in the network,
What was important about Shepard and Metzler’s mental chronometry ?
it was the first experiment to apply quantitative methods to visual imagery
The ___ ____ effect refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognise when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a non-word
Word Superiority
What experimental task is the falsification principle associated with?
Wason’s Four-Card Problem
Slow, laboured, ungrammatical speech caused by damage to Broca’s area is called __ __?
Broca’s Aphasia
The process by which two problems are compared and similarites between them are determined is called ___ coding?
Analogical
Who posited that human language coded in the genes and that the underlying basis of all language is similar?
Noam Chomsky
____ ____ are that events more easily remembered are judged as more probalbe than those harder to remember
Availibility Heuristic
Inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence are called ___ inferences?
Anaphoric inferences
The _____-____ hypothesis stats that our ability to differentiate livings things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function
sensory-functional hypothesis
Periods of rapid change followed by stability cause memory encoding to be stronger….this lifespan hypothesis of memory is the??
Cognitive hypothesis
Which level is psychologically special to Rosch
The basic Level
Phonemic restoration, words isolated from conversational speech, speech segmentation and word superiority are all effects which emphasies the ___ in our perception.?
Context
What are the advantages of constructing memory?
Understanding languagel Fill in the blanks; Solve problems; Make decisions
Skinner proposed in “Verbal Behaviour” that language is learned through ___?
Reinforcement
The principle of __ __ states that when a person encounters a new word, the person’s parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible?
Late closure
The result of Kremer’s experiemnt show that the inability to correctly ____ the emotional outcome of a decision can lead to inefficient decision making
Predict
What is an exemplar?
Actual member of a category that a person has encountered in the past
Are some events in a human life going to be remembered more than others?
Yes
What are the building blocks of words?
Morphemes and Phonemes
Focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object is called ____-fixedness?
Functional
The rules for combining words into sentences is called ___?
Syntax
Inferences about tools or methods are called ___ inferences?
Instrument inferences
More than one possible structure or meaning in sentence, which is caused when there are multiple ways of parsing, this is called ____ ____
Syntactic Ambiguity
The __ __ effect refers to the finding that letters are easier to recognise when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a nonword?
word superiority
The two properties of language - __ and __ endow humans with the ability to go far beyond the fixed calls and signs of animals to communicate whatver we want to express
a heirarchical structure; rules
Greenberg and Rubin found that patients who had lost their ability to recognize objects or to visualise objects, because of damage to visual areas of the cortex, also expereiend loss of ___
Autobiographical Memory?
_____ of observations, _____ of observations, and ____ of observations all affect the stregnth of an inductive argument
Representativenss; Number; Qualitiy
One of the basic priniciples behind the mental model of reasoning is that: a conclusion is valid only if it cannot be _____ by any model of the premises
Refuted
Examplar approach to categorisation is used (in initial/ in later) (small/large groups) categorisation, while Prototype appoach is used (in initial/in later) categorisation with (small/large) groups
Initial/smaller groups; Later/Larger groups
Lynn Frazier’ s __-__ approach to parsing proposed that as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is goverend by a number of rules that are based on syntax
Syntax-first
One type of syllogism called modus ponens is latin for: the way that affirms by ______
Affirming
A syllogism that is valid indicates that its conclusion follows ___ from its two premises
logically
While the ______ heuristic is related to how often we expect events to occur, the ______ heuristic is realted ot the idea that people often make judgments based on how much one event resembles another event
Availability; Representativeness
What is Tacit knowledge explanation?
it states that subjects unconsciously use knowledge about the world making their judgements
Four proposals of how concepts are represented in the brain
The sensory-functional hypothesis, The semantic category approach, The multiple-factor approach, The embodied approach
The process of connecting objects/people is called
Anaphorics
____ four-card problem is a conditional reasoning task that involves 4 cards
Wason’s
Newell and Simon (1972) saw problems in terms of an ___ state: conditions at the beginning of the problem, and a ___ state: the solution of the problem
Initial; Goal
What are semantics?
The meaning or words and sentences
When words have two or more meanings it is known as __ dominance?
Biased
If something is high in prototypicality, then it has (low/high) family resemblance?
High
Personal ____ have also been related to decision making
qualities
A syllogisms form determines its
Validity
The _____ approach to categories in the brain states that our knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object
Embodied
The tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes is called the ____ bias
myside
Retroactive interference and source monitoring errors are two proposed explanations of the phenomenon of ___ ___
False memory
Making a compartison in order to show a similarity between two different things is called an ___?
Analogy
Semantics can influence processing as we read a sentence is suggested by the ____ approach?
Interactionist
Reasoning based on obeservations, or reaching conclusions from evidence is called ____ reasoning
inductive
Availiability heuristic, Illusory correlation, Representatiness heuristic, Base rate, Conjunction rule, Law of Large Numbers, Myside bias, and confirmation bias are all potential sources of error in making ____
Judgments
Illusory ____ occur when we expect two things to be related, so we fool ourselves into thinking they are related when they are not
correlations
Things in a category resemble one another in a number of ways: this is known as…
Famility resemblance
