What is this thing called "science"? Flashcards
1
Q
the common sense view of science
A
- science is special because its knowledge is based on facts
- often contrasted with other forms of knowledge that might be:
1) based on authority
2) revelation
3) superstition
2
Q
where do facts come from?
A
- formalised by the empiricists and the positivists
- they had a view - knowledge should be derived from the facts of experience.
- break it down into:
1) careful and unbiased observers can directly access facts through the senses/observation
2) facts come before and are independent of theories
3) facts form a firm and reliable base for scientific knowledge
3
Q
facts through the senses
A
- external physical causes that produces some physical changes in our sense organs
- this account implies direct and unmediated access to the world through our senses
4
Q
observation is not theory-free
A
- 2 scientists might “observe” something different even when looking at the same thing
- in some fields, being able to make observations actually requires training e.g.,:
1) training in how to observe stuff through a microscope
2) training in how to distinguish different kinds of behaviour
3) training in how to read an x-ray - so a simple claim that observations are unbiased or straightforwardly given by the senses seems to be false
5
Q
what do we mean by facts?
A
- fact could refer to some external state of world
- or fact could refer to statements about those external states
-when we talk about facts as the basis of science, we’re talking about these statements. - this type of fact is an “observation statement”
6
Q
do facts come before theories?
A
- formulating observation statements might require substantial background knowledge or a conceptual framework to place them in.
- they aren’t completely independent of theory
7
Q
relevant facts
A
- intervening through experiment allows you to tell what the relevant facts of your observation are
8
Q
active observation and intervention
A
- by intervening on the system, we can tell which facts are relevant.
- but scientific facts may play a part in helping to determine what is and what isn’t relevant.
- observations cant be completely divorced from theories.
- experiments will presume the truth of certain theories.
9
Q
objectivity
A
- the idea that science is objective in a simple sense of “objectivity” is misleading
- your conceptual framework, and theoretical assumptions, and even your knowledge and training can play a part in what kinds of observations you can make or what types of observation statements you can formulate.
- objectivity doesn’t mean observations free from theoretical assumptions.
10
Q
objectivity is more complex
A
- it means:
1) publicly and independently verifiable methods
2) recognising theoretical assumptions
3) theory/data that are open to revision and improvement
4) free from avoidable forms of bias - it is also objective in the sense that despite all this, when you make the observations either the behaviour will happen or it won’t, the detector will flash or it wont, etc. Your theory cant make things happen
11
Q
deriving theories from facts
A
- scientific knowledge is derived from facts.
- logically derived.
- to understand what it might mean to logically derive scientific knowledge we need to know a bit about logic.
12
Q
deductive logic
A
- a deductive argument is called valid if the conclusion follow from the premises.
- deductions is only concerned with whether (3) follows from (1) and (2)
- it is not concerned whether (1) and (2) are true or false
- the argument assumes that (1) and (2) are true, but doesn’t establish the truth
13
Q
false but valid
A
- logic only tells us what follows from what, if there is truth in our premises, then there is truth in our conclusions.
- if our premises are false, then our conclusions will also be false.
- deductive logic is truth-preserving, but it can’t tell us what is true and what is false, the conclusion is just a re-statement of the information contained in the premises.
- so deductive logic cant create new knowledge, so we need a way to go from particular observation to generalisations.
14
Q
induction
A
- the process of induction allows us to construct arguments.
- but the problem with arguments like this is that all the premises may be true and yet the conclusion can be false.
15
Q
collecting observations
A
- more observations are better than fewer observations - but how many is enough?
- observations in many different contexts - but what makes a context different and what makes differences relevant/
1) different contexts should be novel in some sense
2) that is, it should not just be trivial changes - no contradicting observations - but what about probabilistic phenomena?
- clear and simple rules aren’t easy to come by
- but the bigger problem is induction can never establish truth
- we can never be certain of the truth