Y2 Module 4 - Issues and Debates Flashcards
What do universality and bias mean?
Psychologists are influenced by the social and historical context. Bias may be an inevitable part of the process. Undermines claims of universality.
Referring to an example, outline alpha bias.
A bias within research that exaggerates or overestimate of the difference between the sexes. More likely to devalue females in relation to their male counterparts.
Sociobiological theory - Wilson (1975) - explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through the principle of ‘survival efficiency’. Males want to impregnate as many women as possible to increase the chance of his genes being passed on. Females have a better chance of passing on her genes by ensuring the healthy survival of the few offspring she is able to produce. Sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, but females who engage in the same behaviour are regarded as going against their ‘nature’ - an exaggeration of the differences between the sexes.
Referring to an example, outline beta bias.
Minimises or underestimates differences between men and women. Occurs when female participants aren’t included in the research but then the research assumes the findings apply equally to both sexes.
Research on fight or flight response. Evidence used to formulate this theory was based on male animals (hormones don’t fluctuate like females). Was assumed to be universal response to a threatening situation. Modern research has shown females respond differently. Taylor (2000) suggests female biology has evolved to inhibit the flight or fight response and instead shifts attention towards caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females.
Briefly outline androcentrism.
A consequence of beta bias. Conclusions drawn from all-male samples is classed as ‘normal’. Behaviour that deviates from it is likely to be judged as ‘abnormal’. Leads to female behaviour being understood and pathologized. Taken as a psychological instability or disorder. Feminist commentators have been objected to the diagnostic category PMS on the grounds it stereotypes and trivialises female experience.
Brescoll and Uhlman (2008). Claim PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotion, especially anger, by explaining it in hormonal terms. Male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures.
What are some of the implications of gender bias?
Gender-biased research creates misleading assumptions about females. Research fails to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory practices. Provides a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society. Men set the standards for normalcy. Tavris (1993) ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’. Is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences that affects the lives of real women.
Sexism within the research process is a consequence of gender bias. Explain this, referring to research.
Lack of women appointed senior research level means female concerns aren’t always reflected in research questions. Male researchers are more likely to have their work published. Studies which find evidence of gender differences are more likely to appear in journal articles than those that don’t. Nicolson (1995). Laboratory experiments may further disadvantage women. Female participants placed in an inequitable relationship with male researchers that have the power to label them unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete complex tasks.
What is meant by ‘reflexivity’ and how does it help the issues of bias?
Researchers nowadays recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work. Instead of seeing their bias as a problem that threatens the objective status and embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process in general. Reflexivity may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping future research.
What is meant by essentialism and how does it relate to gender bias?
Gender differences reported by psychologists are based on an essentialist perspective. Gender differences are inevitable and ‘fixed’ in nature. Walkerdine (1990). In the 1930’s research revealed how intellectual activity, for instance attending uni, would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and decrease her chances of producing offspring. Essentialist accounts are often politically motivated arguments disguised as scientific ‘facts’. Creates a double-standard in the way in which the same behaviour is viewed from male and female perspective.
Briefly explain how feminist psychology has suggested reducing stereotypes.
Worrell (1992) put forward criteria that should be used in order to avoid gender bias. Women should be studied in meaningful, real-life contexts. Genuinely participate in research instead of being the objects of the study. Diversity within groups of women should be the focus of attention. Instead of comparing women to men. Could show that female stereotypes don’t apply to all women and reduce stereotypes. Greater emphasis placed on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative instead of numerical data. Allows for unexpected findings, because questions are not fixed in advance.
Outline cultural bias.
1992, 64% of the world’s 56,000 psychology researchers were American. Baron and Byrne released a book on social psychology. 94% of the studies were conducted in North America. Psychology is mainly the study of white American males. Despite restricting their research to certain parts of the world psychologists continuously claim universal facts about human behaviour.
Outline universality and bias referring to cultural bias.
In general mainstream psychology has ignored culture as an important influence on human behaviour. Universal truths may not be universal. For example, assuming findings from Western cultures can be applied around the world. ‘Norm’ is judged from the point of view of one culture. Because of this differences in behaviour in other cultures will be viewed as ‘abnormal’.
Outline ethnocentrism.
Believes in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. In research this can be communicated through a view that behaviours that don’t conform to Western models are deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (1970) is criticised as it only reflects the norms and values of American culture. The Strange Situation was revealed as an inappropriate measure of attachment type for non-US children.
Outline what is meant by cultural relativism.
An example of imposed etic. When assuming the US-based model of classifying attachment norm Ainsworth imposed her own cultural understanding upon the world. Berry (1969) found a distinction between etic and emic approaches. Etic - looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe the behaviours that are universal. Emic - functions from within or inside certain cultures and identifies behaviours specific to that culture.
Berry argues psychology often imposes an etic approach - arguing that theories, models, concepts etc. are universal. Often they come through emic research within a single culture. Suggests that psychologists should be more mindful of the cultural relativism of their research. Does what they are discovering only make sense from the perspective of the culture it was discovered.
Is it possible / correct to separate cultural relativism and universality?
Just because imposed etic is a thing doesn’t mean that all psychology is culturally relative and that there’s no such thing as universal human behaviour. Ekman (1989) suggests basic facial expressions for emotions eg. happiness or disgust, are the same all over the human and animal world. Critics of Ainsworth’s Strange situation shouldn’t deny the fact that some features of human attachment are universal. Eg. Imitation and interactional synchrony. Full understanding of human behaviour requires studying both universals and variations among individuals and groups.
Research into individualist and collectivist cultures has shown that culture bias may not as prevalent as it once was. Explain this.
Reference to culture is often within the context of individualist-collectivist distinction. Individualist cultures - Western countries (US) thought to value personal freedom and independence. Collectivist cultures -Eastern countries (India and China) places emphasis on interdependence and and the needs of the group. However in the age of global communication and increased interconnectedness that ‘lazy’ and simplistic distinction between cultures no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies that compared the USA and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between individualism and collectivism.
Cultural bias may be less of an issue than it once was.
Explain the cultural issue of unfamiliarity with research tradition.
When conducting research in Western cultures the patient’s’ familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed. The same knowledge and ‘faith’ in scientific testing may not extend to cultures that don’t have the same historical experience of research. Demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population. May result in an adverse effect on the validity of the research.
A strength of cross cultural research is that it can challenge implicit assumptions. Explain this.
Cross-cultural research challenges typical Western ways of viewing the world. Can promote a greater sensitivity to individual difference and cultural relativism in the future. Counters the charge of ‘scientific racism’. The conclusions psychologists draw are likely to have more validity if they recognise the role that culture plays in the findings.
What is meant by free will?
Humans are seen as self-determining and free to choose their own thoughts and actions. Doesn’t deny that biological and environmental forces may exert influence on our behaviour. Implies that we are able to reject these forces at the masters of our own destiny. Free will is the view of human behaviour that is advocated by the humanistic approach.
Briefly outline the two main types of determinism.
Hard determinism - fatalism, states all human behaviour has a cause and should be possible to identify and describe the causes. Compatible with the aims of science, and aims to discover causal laws that govern thought and action.
Soft determinism - Acknowledges all human action has a cause but suggests that people have conscious mental control over the way they behave. Scientists can explain the many determining forces that act upon us but this does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices.
Identify and outline three subtypes of determinism.
Biological determinism - The belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetic, neurological, evolutionary) influences that are beyond our control. Eg. ANS during periods of stress and anxiety. Mental disorders are thought to have a genetic basis. Research has demonstrated the role of testosterone in aggressive behaviour.
Environmental determinism - Skinner viewed free will as an ‘illusion’. All behaviour is the result of conditioning. Our experience of ‘choice’ is the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives. We may think we’re acting independently but our behaviour has been shaped by environmental events as agents of socialisation.
Psychic determinism - Freud viewed free will as an ‘illusion’. Places more emphasis on the influence of biological drives and instincts. Human behaviour is seen as determined and directed by unconscious conflicts that had been repressed in childhood. Slip of the tongue can be explained by underlying authority of the unconscious.
Make a case for free will.
There is face validity to the concept, it makes cognitive sense. We constantly exercise free will with the choices we make daily. People with an internal locus of control tend to be more mentally healthy. LoC - believe they have a high degree of control over their own behaviour. Roberts (2000) found adolescents with strong belief in fatalism were at significantly greater risk of developing depression. Shows that even if we don’t have free will the fact we think we do seems to have a positive impact on mind and behaviour.
Outline arguments against free will.
Neurological studies of decision making had revealed evidence against free will. Libet (1985) and Soon (2008) demonstrated that brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choice predates our knowledge of having made that choice. Evidence showed that the choice is decided in the brain up to 10 seconds before the participant report being aware of a decision. Shows that even our most basic experiences of free will are decided and determined before we are aware of them.
Outline the case for determinism.
Scientific backing is valuable. The fact human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws places psychology on equal footing with other established sciences. No-one ‘chooses’ to have mental illnesses which casts doubt on the idea of free will. In terms of mental illnesses behaviour would appear to be determined.
