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Biology Extras > Year 1 Definitions > Flashcards

Year 1 Definitions Flashcards

1
Q

Absorbance (Au)

A

The amount of light that is absorbed by the solution

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1
Q

Active Site

A

A small indentation on the surface of the enzyme, made from 3 – 12 R-groups. The rest of the polypeptide chain is important in holding those R-groups in the correct orientation to form the active site

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2
Q

Active Transport

A

The active movement of molecules against their concentration gradient

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3
Q

Agglutination (blood types)

A

The clumping of erythrocytes occurs if an antigen is mixed with its corresponding antibody

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4
Q

Anticodon

A

Consists of 3 exposed RNA-nucleotides

only found at the base of tRNA molecules

Each anticodon is specific for one amino acid

each tRNA will have a specific anticodon which determines the amino acid it carries

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5
Q

Apoenzyme

A

An inactive enzyme which needs the presence of a co-factor to activate it

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6
Q

ATP

A

A phosphorylated nucleotide which is a short-term energy store

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7
Q

Atheroma

A

A build-up of white blood cells that have taken up low-density-lipoproteins and become deposited in the lining of the artery walls

Deposits cholesterol, dead fibres and muscle cells and restricts blood flow

Causes myocardial infarction

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8
Q

Biosensor

A

Analytical device used to detect presence of a chemical molecule (the analyte) by combining the chemical with a biological component

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9
Q

Capillaries

A

Site of exchange between plasma and cells (so glucose and O2 is delivered to cells)

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10
Q

Cardiac Arrest

A

When the heart no longer functions usefully as a pump

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11
Q

Cardiac Output

A

The volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each minute

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12
Q

Chromosome

A

Lengths of DNA that are wrapped around a protective layer of protein called the histone coat.

A linear structure consisting of 1 molecule of DNA

Usually found in pairs in somatic cells

Carry 100s to 1000s of genes each

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13
Q

Chromosome Mutation

A

A change to the structure (whole or part) of a chromosome (i.e. deletions, insertions, translocations)

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14
Q

Closed Circulatory System

A

Blood always moves within blood vessels, which allows pressure to be maintained

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15
Q

Codon

A

A triplet of DNA nucleotide bases that code for a specific amino acid

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16
Q

Cofactor

A

Additional non-protein component that is needed by the enzyme to enable it to function

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17
Q

Condensation Reaction

A

The joining of 2 monomers by the removal of H2O to form a new covalent bond

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18
Q

Degenerate Code

A

There are more codon possibilities than amino acid

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19
Q

Deletion Mutation

A

Deletion of one or more DNA bases, causes a frameshift, resulting in loss of function of protein coded for by the gene

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20
Q

Diastolic Pressure

A

The pressure during diastole = the pressure in the arteries when the heart rests between beats

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21
Q

Disulfide Bonds

A

Formed between the sulphur atom of R-groups of 2 cysteine amino acids

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22
Q

Double Circulatory System

A

Blood passes through the heart twice per complete circuit around the body (pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit)

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23
Q

Enzyme Inhibitor

A

A small molecule that interacts with an enzyme to reduce the rate of reaction

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24
Q

Eutrophication

A

The enrichment of a water body with nutrients, usually with an excess amount of nutrients, including growth of plants and algae and resulting in oxygen depletion of the water body

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25
Q

Exon

A

Sections of DNA that code for a specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

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26
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

The passive movement of molecules down the concentration gradient through specialised proteins until an equilibrium is reached across a partially permeable membrane

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27
Q

Genome

A

The total collection of all the genes within an organism or cell

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28
Q

Histone

A

A protein that provides structural support for a chromosome

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29
Q

Holoenzyme

A

A complex of an enzyme with its cofactor. The complex is active so the enzyme will function

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30
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

Weak interactions between atoms with slight positive and slight negative charges (i.e. between dipoles)

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31
Q

Hydrolysis Reaction

A

The splitting of a polymer to remove a monomer by the addition of H2O to break an existing covalent bond

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32
Q

Hydrophobic Interactions

A

Water is repelled and excluded from hydrophobic, non-polar R-groups

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33
Q

Hypertension

A

Persistently high blood pressure (clinic BP of 140/90 mmHg / home BP of 135/85 mmHg)

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34
Q

Hypertonic Solution

A

The solution has a higher number of solute molecules, and a low water potential

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35
Q

Hypotension

A

Persistently low blood pressure

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36
Q

Hypotonic Solution

A

The solution has a lower number of solute molecules, and a high water potential

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37
Q

Hypovolemic Shock

A

Shock caused by excessive blood loss and fluid loss, where 1/5 or more of blood volume is lost, resulting in organ failure

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38
Q

Insertion Mutation

A

Addition of one or more DNA bases, causes a frameshift, resulting in loss of function of protein coded for by the gene

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39
Q

Intron

A

Genetic rubbish (i.e. sections of DNA that do not code for a sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide chain)

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40
Q

Ionic Bonds

A

Formed between R groups which have carboxyl groups (COO-) and amino groups (NH+)

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41
Q

Isoenzymes

A

Enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyse the same chemical reaction

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42
Q

Isotonic Solution

A

Two solutions either side of the partially permeable membrane have the same water potential

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43
Q

Lymph Fluid

A

Similar to tissue fluid, but more leucocytes, important in immune response, and lymph nodes are the site for filtration of pathogens and foreign bodies

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44
Q

Magnification

A

The degree of enlargement of an image to reveal further detail

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45
Q

Mutation

A

A change in the arrangement of bases in a gene or in chromosome structure

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46
Q

Mutation Rate

A

A measure of the rate at which various types of mutations occur over time

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47
Q

Myocardial Infarction

A

When the blood supply to cardiac muscle is totally or partially cut off, preventing aerobic respiration in muscle cells

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48
Q

Myogenic

A

No nerve stimulation required to make the cardiac muscle contract

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49
Q

Non-Reducing Sugar

A

Sugars without the ability to donate an electron to another molecules (e.g.: sucrose)

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50
Q

Osmosis

A

The passive movement of water molecules from an area of high water potential to an area of low water potential down a water potential gradient through a partially permeable membrane

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51
Q

Peptide Bonds

A

Formed by condensation reaction between NH group of one amino acid and the COOH group of the adjacent amino acid

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52
Q

Point Mutation

A

A change to the structure of a gene due to a change in the DNA-nucleotide base sequence

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53
Q

Primary Structure of a Protein

A

Sequence of amino acids within the polypeptide chain (amino acids joined by series of condensation reactions resulting in peptide bonds)

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54
Q

Productivity

A

The amount of energy available at one trophic level for a defined area over a defined period of time

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55
Q

Prostaglandins

A

A group of chemicals, synthesised from a fatty acid called arachidonate

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56
Q

Pulse

A

The expansion of the artery wall during ventricular systole, and the elastic recoil during diastole. Pulse can be taken at radial, temporal and carotid artery or in groin (femoral artery)

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57
Q

Quaternary Structure of a Protein

A

Presence of 2 or more polypeptide chains joined together, OR presence of 1 polypeptide chain and at least 1 non-protein prosthetic group

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58
Q

Q10 Rule

A

For every 1°C rise in temperature, the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction will double up until its optimum temperature
(Beyond optimum temperature, rate of reaction will decrease sharply to 0 as the enzyme is denatured)

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59
Q

Repeatable

A

If someone was to carry out the test again using the same method and got the same result, then data is repeatable

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60
Q

Reproducible

A

If a measurement was taken using a different method and got the same result, the result is referred to as reproducible

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61
Q

Resolution

A

The ability to distinguish between two different points and to see detail

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62
Q

Reversibility

A

Some enzymes catalyse reactions in either direction (e.g. Carbonic anhydrase) and the direction of reaction depends on environmental conditions

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63
Q

Secondary Productivity

A

The rate at which animals convert chemical energy in the plants they consume into their own biomass

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64
Q

Secondary Structure of a Protein

A

Folding of the polypeptide chain to form either alpha helices or beta pleated sheets

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65
Q

Semi-Conservative Replication

A

Each polynucleotide strand of DNA acts as template for the synthesis of a complementary strand. New DNA molecule has one original polynucleotide strand and one new polynucleotide strand

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66
Q

Simple Diffusion

A

The passive movement of molecules down the concentration gradient until an equilibrium is reached across a partially permeable membrane

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67
Q

Specificity

A

Enzymes only work on specific substrates, as the shape of the substrate must be complementary to the shape of the active site

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68
Q

Streptokinase

A

Enzyme secreted as toxin by many different species of Streptococcus bacteria

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69
Q

Stroke Volume

A

The volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle during the cardiac cycle (60-80cm3)

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70
Q

Substitution Mutation

A

May have no effect (silent) or may lead to loss of function of the protein coded for by the gene (nonsense or missense)

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71
Q

Sustainable Fishing

A

Removing a controlled number of fish from the natural population, allowing the remainder to reproduce and replenish. Means there is no significant reduction in adult population

72
Q

Systolic Pressure

A

The pressure in the arteries as blood is forced out of the left ventricle during systole

73
Q

Tertiary Structure of a Protein

A

Further folding of the polypeptide chain to produce a complex 3-dimensional shape. Results in a globular arrangement (i.e. a G-protein)

74
Q

Tissue Fluid

A

Fluid that surrounds the cells of the body, supplies cells with nutrients and removes waste products

75
Q

Transmission

A

The amount of light that passes through the solution

76
Q

Transpiration Stream

A

The movement of water from the roots to the leaves via mass flow and transpiration

77
Q

Turnover Rate

A

The maximum number of chemical conversions of substrate molecules per second that a single catalytic site carries out at a given concentration of enzyme

78
Q

Ventricular Fibrillation

A

Rapid, uncontrolled contraction of the muscles in the ventricles, resulting in no effective movement of the blood

79
Q

Transpiration

A

The loss of water vapour by diffusion from the underside of the leaf (the aerial part of the plant) via the open stomata

80
Q

Apoplast Pathway

A

Water moves through cellulose cell walls, along cellulose fibre in walls, and through space in fibres. Route offers little resistance so most water travels via this route

81
Q

Symplast Pathway

A

Water travels through CSM to the protoplasm of cell via osmosis from root hair cells through cells of root cortex down a water potential gradient. Water also moves through plasmodesmata from cytoplasm to cytoplasm

82
Q

Vacuolar Pathway

A

Water moves vacuole to vacuole via neighbouring cells, crossing symplast and apoplast pathways

83
Q

Translocation

A

The movement of nutrients around the plant from source to sink

84
Q

Tissue

A

A group of one or more cell types that are specialised and working together for a particular function

85
Q

Organ

A

A group of one or more tissue types that are specialised to carry out specific functions

86
Q

Organ System

A

A collection of organs with a particular function

87
Q

Tidal Volume

A

The volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath

88
Q

Vital Capacity

A

The maximum amount of air that can be forcibly expelled from the lungs following breathing as deeply as possible (approx.. 2-5 dm3)

89
Q

Residual Volume

A

The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiratory effort

90
Q

Dead Space

A

The volume of non-exchange surfaces in the breathing system

91
Q

Pulmonary Ventilation

A

The amount of air exchanged with the environment per minute

92
Q

FEV(1)

A

Forced Expiratory Volume, as in the volume of air that can be breathed out in the first second of forced exhalation

93
Q

PEFR

A

Peak Expiratory Flow Rate, as in the maximum rate of forcing air out through the mouth

94
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death, initiated by p53 (a tumour suppressor protein), important for growth, development and cell proliferation

95
Q

Stem Cell

A

An undifferentiated cell that is capable of differentiating into a range of cell types

96
Q

Differentiation

A

The development of unspecialised cells to form specialised cells

97
Q

Totipotent Stem Cell

A

A stem cell that has the ability to form a whole organism and extra-embryonic membranes

98
Q

Pluripotent Stem Cell

A

A stem cell that is found in embryos as the 50-100 cell stage

99
Q

Multipotent Cell

A

A stem cell that has the ability to differentiate into a limited range of different cell types

100
Q

CVS

A

Chorionic Villus Sampling
= the removal and testing of small sample of placental and chorionic villus cells to test for genetic abnormalities using a transcervical / transabdominal needle

101
Q

Amniocentesis

A

The removal and testing of approx. 20cm3 amniotic fluid to test for genetic abnormalities

102
Q

Karyotyping

A

The photographing of paired, sized chromosomes to identify chromosomal abnormalities from malfunctions or disease

103
Q

Classification

A

The grouping of organisms based on the similarity of features

104
Q

Taxonomy

A

The science of studying classification and the differences between species

105
Q

Phylogeny

A

The study of evolutionary relationships between organisms

106
Q

Species

A

A group of organisms which can interbreed successfully to produce fertile offspring

107
Q

Biological Species Concept

A

A group of organisms with similar morphological, physiological, biochemical and ecological features that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

108
Q

Phylogenetic Species Concept

A

A group of organisms that share a common ancestor and have the same evolutionary history

109
Q

Adaptation

A

The possession of a feature that has increased the chances of survival of an individual to enable it to reach reproductive age and reproduce successfully

110
Q

‘Vocal Grooming’ Theory of Language Evolution

A

Vocal grooming maintained social bonds in groups that became larger. Began as simple sounds, then evolved into more complex language

111
Q

‘Mother Tongue’ Theory of Language Evolution

A

Words and basic language evolved for communication between mother and offspring

112
Q

Selection Pressures

A

Environmental factors that drive evolution in a particular direction

113
Q

Speciation

A

The evolution of a new species

114
Q

Allopatric Speciation

A

When a geographical barrier separates two populations, causing them to experience different selection pressures so different traits evolve. Eventually they are different enough that they can no longer interbreed

115
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

Reproductive isolation, usually arising from allopatric speciation (e.g.: cannot attract a mate, incompatible genitalia, different mating or flowering seasons)

116
Q

Health

A

Being free from disease, having physical, social and mental wellbeing, having good nutrition and being suitably housed

117
Q

Disease

A

A malfunction of the body and/or mind that adversely affects the health of an individual and leads to impairment of normal functioning

118
Q

Communicable Disease

A

A disease or infection capable of being transmitted or communicated to another living organism

119
Q

Virulence

A

A measure of the ability of a pathogen to cause disease

120
Q

Latent TB

A

TB that causes no symptoms, so treatment is not required by the disease must be monitored

121
Q

Retrovirus

A

A virus that contains RNA and reverse transcriptase

122
Q

Incidence Rate

A

The number of new cases of a disease in a population each year

123
Q

Endemic

A

An infectious disease being constantly present in a population

124
Q

Epidemic

A

A sudden increase in the incidence of an infectious disease in a confined area

125
Q

Pandemic

A

An increase in the incidence of an infectious disease in several countries

126
Q

Morbidity

A

The number of people who have a certain disease

127
Q

Mortality

A

The number of people who have died from a certain disease within a population

128
Q

Notifiable Disease

A

A disease that, upon diagnosis by a doctor, must be reported to the local authorities and Public Health England

129
Q

Immune Response

A

A response to the presence of a foreign antigen involving the activation of lymphocytes and the production of antibodies

130
Q

Primary Defences

A

Mechanisms that have evolved to prevent the entry of pathogenic organisms

131
Q

Antibodies

A

Soluble glycoproteins, produced by B plasma cells, that bind to complementary antigens on the surface of the pathogen

132
Q

Neutralisation

A

Antibodies combine with viruses or bacterial toxins to prevent them entering or damaging cells

133
Q

Agglutination (antibodies)

A

Antibodies immobilise pathogens by clumping them together to stop them entering the cell and making them easier to be phagocytosed

134
Q

Immobilisation

A

Antibodies stop movement of bacteria by attaching to flagella

135
Q

Lysis-Antibodies

A

Antibodies that bind to foreign bodies and attract complement proteins which ‘punch’ pores in the CSM

136
Q

Opsonisation

A

The constant region of antibodies attaches to receptors on CSM on phagocyte. The variable region attaches to antigens on the pathogen so the pathogen can be engulfed

137
Q

Hypersensitivity

A

An undesirable reaction produced by the immune system

138
Q

Sensitisation

A

Initial contact with the allergen triggers primary immune response. Plasma cells produce Immunoglobulin antibodies, which bind to receptors on mast cells

139
Q

Active Immunity

A

Activation of B and T lymphocytes in response to presence of pathogenic antigens, resulting in production of antibodies and memory cells

140
Q

Passive Immunity

A

No activation of lymphocytes and no memory cells produced, presence of antibodies only

141
Q

Natural Immunity

A

e.g.: from mother to foetus across placenta / breast milk

142
Q

Artificial Immunity

A

Injection of antibodies from another source

143
Q

Vaccination

A

Deliberate exposure of an individual to antigens from a foreign source in order to provoke an immune response and provide immunity (artificial active immunity)

144
Q

Live-Attenuated Vaccine

A

Modified strains of bacteria / viruses that can multiply but are NOT pathogenic.

Strongest response and long-lasting immunity
BUT cannot be given to those with compromised immune systems

145
Q

Killed-Inactivated Vaccine

A

Bacteria / virus is killed with chemical treatment but antigens remain intact, provoking an immune response.

More stable than LA vaccine, doesn’t need refrigeration
BUT weaker response so boosters needed

146
Q

Toxoid Vaccine

A

Toxoids extracted and treated with formaldehyde to prevent symptoms = triggers immune response and production of antitoxins.

Safe when toxins cause virulence
BUT doesn’t give strong immune response

147
Q

Subunit Vaccine

A

Only specific antigens extracted and used.

Can construct vaccines for several strains

148
Q

Artificial Antigen Recombinant Vector

A

Genes coding for the antigens of the pathogen are transferred through genetic engineering to harmless microorganisms.

Provides immunity to agents that can’t easily be attenuated without destroying antigen activity

149
Q

Ring Vaccination

A

A vaccination ring around the geographical centre of an epidemic to prevent its spread

150
Q

Protein Energy Malnutrition

A

Insufficient protein consumption, so cannot make antibodies or memory cells due to insufficient amino acids

151
Q

Antibiotic

A

A chemical that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria

152
Q

Bactericidal Antibiotics

A

Kill bacteria by disrupting cell wall or by disrupting protein synthesis

153
Q

Bacteriostatic Antibiotics

A

Prevent growth or reproduction of bacteria (e.g.: tetracycline prevents tRNA binding to ribosomes so protein synthesis cannot take place)

154
Q

Sulphonamides

A

Competitive inhibitors of bacteria membranes. Inhibit enzymes that assist in synthesis of folic acid so DNA (purines) can’t be synthesised

155
Q

Erythromycin

A

Blocks sites on ribosomes so prevents protein synthesis, so polypeptide chain cannot be elongated (used in preventing communicable diseases)

156
Q

Broad Spectrum Antibiotics

A

Work well against a wide range of bacteria

157
Q

Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics

A

Only effective against certain types of infection

158
Q

Non-Communicable Disease

A

A disease which is non-infectious and non-transmissible among people

159
Q

Risk Factor

A

A variable associated with an increased chance of developing a disease or infection

160
Q

Tumour

A

A lump or growth of abnormal cells that divide uncontrollably

161
Q

Cancer

A

A disease usually caused by a mutation that causes uncontrolled cell division and the subsequent formation of a tumour

162
Q

Metastasis

A

The process in which cancer cells break from the primary tumour and spread to initiate a secondary tumour formation at a different location

163
Q

Benign Tumour

A

Slow growing, not normally life-threatening, do not normally grow back

164
Q

Malignant Tumour

A

Fast growing, metastatic, can be life-threatening

165
Q

Mutagen

A

A physical, biological or chemical agent that mutates the DNA of an organism and increases the frequency of mutations above the natural background level

166
Q

Screening

A

Testing people who are known to be at risk of a certain condition before symptoms develop

167
Q

Chemotherapy

A

The use of chemicals that are toxic to dividing or cancerous cells

168
Q

Radiotherapy

A

Ionising radiation is accurately targeted to destroy actively growing cells

169
Q

Immunotherapy

A

Monoclonal antibodies can be tagged with an enzyme that converts an inactive form of a cytotoxic drug into an active form that targets cancerous cells

170
Q

Hormone Therapy (cancer treatment)

A

Oestrogen stimulates transcription of genetic material if cells have ER+ factors (oestrogen receptors), aromatase inhibitors can be given to post-menopausal, early-stage breast cancer sufferers and LH blockers prevent oestrogen synthesis

171
Q

Lumpectomy

A

Surgical method to treat breast cancer, includes removing the tumour and barrier tissue

172
Q

Mastectomy

A

Surgical method to treat breast cancer, includes removing the whole breast and lymph nodes

173
Q

Colectomy

A

Surgical method to treat colon cancer, includes removing tumorous section of colon and re-joining colon by anastomosis

174
Q

Pollutant

A

A substance released into the environment that can harm organisms or the environment itself

175
Q

Asthma

A

The inflammation and subsequent narrowing of the bronchi. Its stimulants are fur, exercise, cold air, tobacco and genetic factors

176
Q

COPD

A

Chronic Obstructory Pulmonary Disorder. A combination of emphysema and bronchitis

177
Q

Placebo

A

A substance containing no active ingredient which has no effect on its recipient, yet its appearance, smell and taste is identical to the real drug. Used to compare the effectiveness of the tested drug

178
Q

NICE

A

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Assess clinical-effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of health technology. Evaluates whether effectiveness justifies use. Offers guidance on other appropriate treatment or procedures

Biology Extras (4 decks)

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