Year 2 Definitions Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
‘Universal Energy Currency’
A
ATP found in all living eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, and links energy-releasing and energy-consuming reactions
2
Q
Phosphorylation
A
Addition of a phosphate group, providing a -ve charge to the substrate
3
Q
Electron Carriers
A
Specialised carrier globular proteins that accept or donate electrons, and have a quaternary structure (since they have a prosthetic group)
4
Q
Anaerobic respiration
A
When molecules other than oxygen are used as final electron acceptors, which allows glycolysis to continue and produce 2 ATP
5
Q
Facultative Anaerobe
A
Can survive in both anaerobic and aerobic conditions, although growth is faster in aerobic
6
Q
Respiratory Substrate
A
An organic molecule that can be oxidised in respiration to produce ATP
7
Q
RQ
A
Respiratory Quotient. The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide evolved to that of oxygen consumed by an organism, tissue or cell in a given time. Indicates the type of respiratory substrate being used
8
Q
Aerobic Fitness
A
A measure of the ability of the heart and lungs to respond to the demands of aerobic exercise
9
Q
VO2 Max
A
The maximum rate at which oxygen can be taken in, transported and utilised, as measured during incremental exercise
10
Q
Excessive Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC)
A
The increased volume of oxygen consumed following vigorous exercise
11
Q
Respiratory Pigment
A
A specialised molecule that is capable of binding reversibly with oxygen
12
Q
Association
A
The binding uptake of oxygen by haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
13
Q
Dissociation
A
The ability of oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen from haem groups
14
Q
Oxygen Dissociation Curve
A
A graph that shows the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) and % saturation of haemoglobin
15
Q
Bohr Shift
A
Decrease in blood pH due to presence of carbon dioxide causes more oxygen to dissociate from haemoglobin in erythrocytes. Respiring tissues require more oxygen for more aerobic respiration to produce more ATP, so more carbon dioxide is produced, so less haemoglobin can combine with oxygen, so oxygen is released more easily
16
Q
Oogenesis
A
The formation of secondary oocytes
17
Q
GIFT
A
Sperm and secondary oocyte inserted into the oviduct and fertilisation occurs naturally inside the woman’s body
18
Q
ZIFT
A
Fertilisation occurs in the lab, then the zygote is transferred to the oviduct
19
Q
Ovulation Induction
A
Used when oocytes do not develop normally. Anti-oestrogen administered day 5-10, increases production of GnRH and secretion of LH and FSH from APG. Ultrasound detects developing follicles if present
20
Q
Intrauterine Insemination
A
Sperm removed and washed to remove mucus and non-mobile sperm. Sperm concentrated in specialised medium, and sperm can then be injected into uterus via artificial insemination
21
Q
Ageing
A
The accumulation of physical and physiological changes within a person
22
Q
Senescence
A
The deterioration of tissues and the loss of their biological function as a result of time, which increases the mortality of the organism
23
Q
Ovarian Reserve
A
The ability of an ovary to produce secondary oocytes that can be fertilised
24
Q
Menopause
A
The last menstrual cycle in a woman. Onset normally 50-54 years
25
Perimenopause
Occurs several years before menopause. Periods become irregular and infrequent. Length of time between periods increases to cessation (menopause)
26
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Replacement of hormones that are decreasing in concentration due to the menopause
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Unopposed Oestrogen
Daily oestrogen. Good for early menopause, but increases risk of uterine cancer
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Combined HRT
Daily oestrogen and progestin. Reduces risk of endometrial cancer
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Phytoestrogens
Phytoestrogens
Naturally occurring, mimic oestrogen. Converted to oestrogen-like compounds in gut by hydrolysis, and reduce effects of viral infections, such as isoflavones or lignans
30
Benign Prostate Hyperplasia
Increase in cell quantity, result of ageing in men, causing scarring of prostate tissue
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Benign Prostate Hypertrophy
Increase in cell size, result of ageing in men, causing scarring of prostate tissue
32
Light Compensation Point
The amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration, usually achieved at dawn and dusk
33
Food Chain
Illustrates the transfer of energy between organisms within an ecosystem
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Ecosystem
The biotic and abiotic components of a specific area, and their interactions
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Community
The organisms within an ecosystem
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Producer
An autotrophic organism that converts light energy to chemical energy
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Primary Consumers
Organisms that gain their organic molecules and chemical energy from the consumption of producers
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Secondary Consumers
Carnivores or omnivores that eat primary consumers
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Tertiary Consumers
Carnivores or omnivores that eat secondary consumers
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Trophic Level
The level at which each consumer eats in a food chain
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Ectotherm
An animal that relies on external sources of heat for thermoregulation
42
Malthusian Crisis
The population in an area grows to exceed its food supply, resulting in mass starvation and population decrease
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Overfishing
Over-exploitation where fish stocks are reduced to below acceptable levels
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Farm
An ecosystem manipulated by humans to increase productivity based on biotic and abiotic factors
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Gross Primary Productivity
The rate that producers convert light energy into chemical potential energy
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Net Primary Productivity
The energy available for transfer after a plant uses some for respiration
(NPP = GPP – respiration)
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Spray Drift
When herbicides and pesticides kill a non-target species
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Food Security
A stable food supply
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Sampling
Obtaining an estimate of the variety and quantity of organisms in an ecosystem
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Stratified Sampling
Representative random sampling with sub regions
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Transect
Identifies correlations between abiotic variables and distribution of organisms
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Species Richness
The total number of species in an area
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Species Evenness
How evenly a species is represented in an area
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Pollination
The transfer of pollen grains from male reproductive structures to female reproductive structures of another plant prior to fertilisation
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Self-Pollination
Pollen transferred to the stigma of the same flower, or another flower on the same plant
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Cross-Pollination
Pollen is transferred from one plant’s anther to another plant’s stigma
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Germination
Plant growth from a seed, including the growth of an embryo root and shoot
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Gibberellins
Plant ‘hormones’ required for germination as growth regulators and cell signalling molecules
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Photoperiodism
The reactions of Pr and Pfr that occur in daylight and darkness
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Global Food Supply
The annual production of a specific crop, plus stockpiles of it carried over from previous years
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Monogenetic Trait
A characteristic controlled by a single trait
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PKU
Phenylketonuria
Mutation prevents the formation of the enzyme required to break down phenylalanine, so phenylalanine accumulates in blood or tissue fluid, causing brain damage
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Huntington's Disease
Accumulation of protein fragments in brain neurones due to an insertion mutation on chromosome 4. Reduces ability to talk, walk and think
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Sickle Cell Anaemia
A substitution in the gene which codes for the beta-polypeptide chain in haemoglobin. Valine replaced glutamate
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Codominance
Two or more alleles that do not show complete dominance, resulting in an intermediate condition of the phenotype
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HLAs
Help the immune system distinguish the body’s own proteins from proteins made by pathogens
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Chromosome Mutation
A random change in the number of chromosomes or chromosome structure, usually following an error in mitosis
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Sex-Linkage
Inheritance of genes on the X and Y chromosomes
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Haemophilia A
A sex-linked genetic disorder where clotting factor VIII is not produced, causing an increase in clotting time
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Translocation
A piece of chromosome breaks off and is transferred to another chromosome
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Non-Disjunction
A change in the diploid number of chromosomes, when homologous chromosomes don’t separate in meiosis I, or sister chromatids don’t separate in meiosis II
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Turner's Syndrome
Non-disjunction during oogenesis causes one oocyte to be XX, the other is OO. Resulting zygote is XO and has 45 chromosomes (2n-1)
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Klinefelter's Syndrome
Non-disjunction during spermatogenesis, causes one sperm to be XY, the other is OO. Resulting zygote is XXY
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Pedigree Analysis
A method of predicting the likelihood of a child being born with a genetic disorder
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Genetic Counsellor
Help people understand the risks of children inheriting diseases, and make informed decisions
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Dihybrid Cross
A cross between two F1 offspring of two individuals which have different characteristics
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Gene Pool
All variants of a gene within a population
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Genetic Bottleneck
A drastic reduction in population numbers
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Founder Effect
A small group breaks away from the original population, causing alleles to become more or less common in the group
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Geographic Isolation
Allopatric isolation, involves a physical barrier which causes the two groups to experience different selection pressures
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Reproductive Isolation
Results from geographic isolation. Mechanisms include: temporal, behavioural, anatomical and post-mating barriers
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Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The proportion of alleles will remain constant from one generation to the next, providing the following conditions are met: No new mutations, no flow of alleles due to migration, no natural selection, large population, random mating
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Epigenetics
The study of changes in gene expression that are not a result of changes to a DNA sequence
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PCR
Polymerase chain reaction. Artificial DNA replication
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Haplotypes
Sets of genes inherited together from one parent
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Electrophoresis
Preparation and analysis of DNA for sequencing
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Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
Sequences of DNA that vary between individuals by a single nucleotide
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Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs)
Patterns of repeated adjacent nucleotides
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Genetic Engineering
The manipulation of an organism’s DNA
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Transformed Organisms
Organisms with recombinant DNA
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Transgenic Organisms
Organisms which have been genetically engineered to include a gene from a different species
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Reporter Gene
Desired gene inserted into reporter gene sequence so it doesn’t work. Cells not displaying reporter property (e.g.: fluorescence) have taken up gene. Used to identify which bacterial cells have taken up recombinant DNA
93
Knockout Mice
Mice that are genetically engineered to have an inactivated gene. Target gene knocked out by incorporating a nucleotide sequence resembling it into an embryonic stem cell, which is then fused with a de-nucleated embryo. Used to study effect of certain genes on diseases.
94
Intron
Genetic rubbish (i.e. sections of DNA that do not code for a sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide chain). Removed from mRNA after transcription to form mature mRNA
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Alternative Splicing
When mRNA molecules from the same gene have different combinations of introns retained and re-joined, allowing genetic diversity
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Somatic Nervous System
Conscious control of skeletal muscle
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Autonomic Nervous System
Subconscious control, allowing reaction to the environment and internal changes and appropriate behaviour modification
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Cerebrum
Conscious thought and reasoning, emotional understanding, language, contralateral control
99
Corpus Callosum
Hemispheric communication
100
Cerebellum
Muscle co-ordination, non-voluntary movement (reflexes)
101
Medulla Oblongata
Autonomic control of heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure and peristalsis
102
Hypothalamus
Homeostasis, osmoregulation, production of hormones secreted by posterior pituitary gland, production of releasing factors to stimulate hormone secretion from APG
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Posterior Pituitary Gland
Storage and secretion of hormones produced by hypothalamus
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Anterior Pituitary Gland
Production and secretion of hormones
105
Axon
A single elongated nerve fibre extending away from the cell body
106
Dendrite
A short extension of cell and cytoplasm to increase the surface area of the neurone for receiving impulses from other neurones
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Myelin Sheath
Layers of plasma membrane produced by Schwann cells. Wrap the axon and make it impermeable to Na+/K+
108
Nodes of Ranvier
Small (2-3 um) gaps every 1-3 mm along the axon. Sites of depolarisation allowing saltatory conduction, so faster conduction of nerve impulses
109
Resting Potential
When a neurone is not transmitting an impulse or action potential (approx. 60 mV)
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Refractory Period
The period in which no further action potentials can be generated
111
Saltatory Conduction
When an action potential ‘jumps’ from one node to another. Increases transmission speed and conserves energy, so fewer ion pumps or channels are needed
112
Synapse
A junction between two neurones, or between a neurone and an effector
113
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential
Increased likelihood of action potentials occurring in post-synaptic neurone, so membrane potential become less negative
114
Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential
Decreased likelihood of an action potential occurring in post-synaptic neurone, so membrane potential becomes less negative
115
Summation
The effect of combined neurotransmitters
116
Reflex Arc
To allow rapid responses to prevent harm to the body
117
Plantar Reflex
Indicates brain or spinal cord damage. Bottom of the foot is poked. Normal = flex down. Abnormal = flex up
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Pupillary Light Reflex
Indicates damage to brain or optic nerve. Light shone in both eyes = should constrict to the same degree
119
Acquired Brain Injury
Any brain injury that occurs after birth
120
Limbic System
Long term memory creation, behaviour and emotions. Influences endocrine system and autonomic nervous system
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Addiction
When a tolerance to a substance builds up so that more of it is required to produce the same effect
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Dependency
When a substance is required by the body for normal functioning
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Macular Degeneration
A loss of cone cells from the fovea
124
Farnsworth-Munsell 1000 Hue Test
Arranging coloured caps in hue order. Can be used as an industry test
125
OCT Scan
Optical Coherence Tomography. Optical beam directed at tissue (normally retina) so light can be reflected and is collected
126
Retinal Detachment
Retina comes away from blood supply in choroid. Results in lack of oxygen and glucose to retinal cells for aerobic respiration
127
Alzheimer's Disease
A form of dementia. A reduction in cognitive ability associated with gradual brain cell death
128
Familial Alzheimer's disease
A family history of AD attributed to susceptibility
Some alleles cause early onset
Approx. 0.1% of cases are autosomal dominant inheritance
129
Tau Proteins
Proteins that stabilise microtubules. Abundant in CNS neurones
130
Presbycusis
Age-related hearing loss due to the damage and death of hair cells in the cochlea and neurones in the auditory nerve
131
Visual Impairment
A severe reduction in vision that cannot be corrected with standard glasses or contact lenses and reduces a person’s ability to function at certain or all tasks
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Age-Related Macular Degeneration
A loss of central vision that results from a loss of effective function in the macular
133
Dry ARMD
Cellular debris (drusen) accumulates between retina and choroid, causing retina to detach
134
Wet ARMD
Neovascular. Abnormal blood vessel growth in the choroid causing leaking of fluid into retina, leads to scarring of macular. Retina can detach from choroid
135
Cataracts
A loss of transparency of the lens, resulting in cloudy vision
136
Glaucoma
Damage of the optic nerve due to increased pressure from a lack of drainage
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Chronic Open-Angle Glaucoma
Blockage of drainage from aqueous humour
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Primary Angle-Closure Glaucoma
Touching of iris and cornea blocks drainage channels
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Secondary Glaucoma
Glaucoma following another eye condition
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Congenital Glaucoma
Develops just after birth
141
Homeostasis
The maintenance of a stable internal environment
142
Set Point
The desired value that the negative feedback mechanism operates around
143
Feedback Loop
The pathway which returns an altered factor back to its set point, and informs receptors of the change to the system
144
Baroreceptors
Detect changes in blood pressure in aorta, carotid artery and vena cava
145
Chemoreceptors
Detect oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the plasma and plasma pH in the aorta, carotid artery and medulla oblongata
146
Thermoregulation
The ability to regulate internal body temperature, irrespective of external temperature changes
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Hypothermia
When internal body temperature is below 35 .C
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Endocrine Gland
Produces and secretes hormones directly into the plasma
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Exocrine Gland
Produces digestive enzymes and releases them via a duct into the duodenum
150
Diabetes Mellitus
Blood glucose concentration outside the normal range
151
Ultrafiltration
The filtering of the blood at a molecular level
152
Selective Reabsorption
Absorption of useful molecules back into the blood from the fluid in the nephron tubule
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Osmoregulation
The regulation of the water potential of body fluids
154
ADH
A hormone produced by specialised nerve cells known as neurosecretory cells
