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Science > Year 10 Semester 1 Exam > Flashcards

Year 10 Semester 1 Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is an Atom

A

Smallest part element can be broken down into

Consists of protons, neutrons, electrons

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2
Q

What is the Nucleus

A

Center of an Atom

Consists of Protons, Neutrons

High Density, Small Volume

Positively charged, holds 99.9% of mass

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3
Q

Mass of Proton

A

1 AMU

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4
Q

Mass of Neutron

A

1 AMU

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5
Q

Mass of Electron

A

1/200 AMU

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6
Q

AEZ Notation

A

Atomic Mass on top

Atomic Number on bottom

Element on side

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7
Q

How would an atom be neutral charge

A

If atom contains same number of protons & electrons

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8
Q

What is Electron Configuration

A

Way of writing amount of electrons in each shell

First shell takes 2 electrons

Second shell takes 8 electrons

Third shell takes 8 electrons

Fourth shell takes 8 electrons (Need to only know up to 2)

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9
Q

What Happens Across a Period

A

Across a period the size of the atom decreases

  • As electrons are attracted more strongly to nucleus (More protons in nucleus)
  • Chance of gaining electrons and forming negative ions increases

Period has same number of electron shells

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10
Q

What Happens Down A Group

A

Same number of valence electrons
- Group number tells us the charge and how many valence electrons it has

Form same number of bonds

Atoms get bigger down a group
- They hold their electrons less tightly (Even though they have more protons, there are more shells)

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11
Q

What Happens on Left Side of Periodic Table

A

Forms positive ions

As you go down group, forms ions easier, as the valence electrons are further from nucleus (More shells), so they let go of them easier (Francium is the weakest)

Postive ions are generally metals

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12
Q

What Happens on Right Side of Periodic Table

A

Forms negative ions

As you go to top of group, forms ions easier, as the valences are closer to nucleus (Less shells), so they can pull in more

Negative ions are generally non-metals

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13
Q

What is the Noble Gases Pattern

A

Noble gases unreactive
- Their outermost shell is always full (8 electrons, except Helium)

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14
Q

What is Electronegativity

A

Ability of an atom to attract additional electrons

As you go from left to right of periodic table, electronegativity increases

  • Means the size of the atom gets smaller, increasing the attraction of electrons
  • This is because the nucleus becomes more positive (Has more protons), pulling electrons in closer

As you go from up to down of periodic table, electronegativity decreases

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15
Q

Soluble Definition

A

Substance that can be dissolved

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16
Q

Insoluble Definition

A

Substance that cannot be dissolved

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17
Q

Solute Definition

A

Substance in solvent

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18
Q

Solvent Definition

A

Liquid that dissolves solute

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19
Q

Solution Definition

A

Mixture of solute & solvent

May be coloured, but always clear

Have uniform properties

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20
Q

Solubility Process of Ionic Compounds

A

1) Lattice structure of ionic bonds disrupted by water molecules

2) After dissolving, individual ions scattered throughout solution

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21
Q

What Happens When You Put Battery in Water

A

All positive ions go to negative electrode (Negative battery side)

All negative ions go to positive electrode (Positive battery side)

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22
Q

Precipitation Definition

A

Insoluble solution that can form as part of reaction between two ionic solutions

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23
Q

Solubility Definition

A

Ability for a solute to dissolve in a solvent to make a solution

Can use solubility table to check if compounds form solutions or precipitates

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24
Q

What is a Compound

A

Substance made up of 2 or more different elements in fixed ratio

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25
Q

What are Ionic Bonds

A

Metal with nearly empty outher shell reacts with non-metal with nearly full outer shell

Where the metal gives their electron to non-metal, so both get full shells

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26
Q

How Does the Lattice Structure in Ionic Bonding Work

A

Each ion in ionic compound is held in place by electrostatic attractive forces

  • Held together as opposite ions attract (Anions & Cations)

Ions form crystal lattice made of ionic bonds

  • Each positive ion surrounded by 6 negative ion, vice versa
  • Keeps formation in place
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27
Q

What are Ionic Compounds

A

Compounds that consist of ions

Consists of metal and one or more non-metals

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28
Q

What are Properties of Ionic Compounds & Bonds

A

Conductive

Hard

High melting point & boiling point

Soluble

Brittle
- Force applied = Puts positive ions next to eachother, shattering the compound
–Due to repulsion of like charges
–Example: Salt (NaCl)

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29
Q

What is the Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds in Solids

A

Ions in lattice are fixed in position

Don’t move = No charge flows

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30
Q

What is the Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compounds in Liquids

A

Ions in lattice can move

Charge flows = Conducts electricity

Ions go towards their opposite charge (Positive to negative)

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31
Q

What are Covalent Bonds

A

Form when two non-metal atoms with nearly full outer shells share electrons

Neither one gives away an electron
- Shared electron count towards both atoms electron configuration

Diagrams mainly shown through electron dot diagrams

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32
Q

How are Covalent Bonds Formed

A

Non-Metals hold onto valence electrons

  • Can’t give them away electrons to bond
  • Though still need noble gas configuration
  • They get it by sharing valence electrons with each other

– = Both atoms get to count electrons toward noble gas configuration

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33
Q

What do Covalent Bonds Make

A

Makes molecules
- Made by specific atoms joining together by sharing electrons

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34
Q

What Are the 2 Kinds of Molecules Formed by Covalent Bonds

A

Diatomic Molecules
Molecular Compounds

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35
Q

What are Molecular Compounds

A

Sharing electrons of different non-metals

Low melting & boiling points

Molecular formula shows type & number of atoms in molecule
- Not ratio, actual amount
- Doesn’t tell you how atoms arranged

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36
Q

What are Diatomic Molecules

A

Two of the same atom
Eg. Cl2, Br2

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37
Q

What are Diatomic Molecules

A

8 elements that always form molecules

Elements: Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine
- All the -ogens, -ines
- Basically, Oxygen by itself means O2

Easy way to remember, 1 + 7 pattern on periodic table

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38
Q

What are the Types of Covalent Bonds

A

Single Covalent Bonds
Multiple Covalent Bonds

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39
Q

What are Single Covalent Bonds

A

Sharing of two valence electrons

Only non-metals & Hydrogen

Difference from ionic bond because they form molecules
- Two specific atoms joined
- In ionic solid, you can’t tell which atom electrons moved from/to

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40
Q

What are Multiple Covalent Bonds

A

Atoms that share more than one pair of valence electrons
- Double bond = Atom shares two pairs (4) of electrons
- Triple bond = Atom shares three pairs (6) of electrons

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41
Q

What are Metallic Bonds

A

Forms sea of mobile electrons throughout lattice structure
Aren’t held to any one ion

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42
Q

What is an Ion

A

Electrically charged, formed when atoms gain / lose electrons to fill shell

Fills shell to become more stable

Electrons that are gained by negative ions came from an ion
- That ion released an electron and became positive

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43
Q

What are Cations

A

If atom loses electrons to fill shell = Positive ion (Cation)
- Forms on left hand side of periodic table

Atoms that have few valence electrons that don’t attract as much, so they lose

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44
Q

What are Anions

A

If atom gains electron = Negative ion (Anion)
- Forms on right hand side of periodic table

Atoms with many valence electrons gain electrons forming negative ions

45
Q

What are Ionic Substances

A

When an element from the left hand side joins with element from right hand side, the left hand side gives electron to right hand side

46
Q

Naming Covalent Bonds

A

Element further left named first, keeps its normal name
- If two elements in same group, element further down named first

Element further right (Higher if in same group), named second
- End of its name changed to end in ‘-ide’
– Eg. Fluoride, Oxide, Sulfide, Bromide

Prefixes used to indicate if more than one element present in molecule
- 1 = Mono
- 2 = Di
- 3 = Tri
- 4 = Tetra
- 5 = Penta

47
Q

Naming Ionic Bonds

A

Metal / Positive Ion named first
- Keeps normal name

Non-Metal / Negative Ion named second
- End of its name changed to end in ‘ide’
– Eg. Fluoride, Oxide, Sulfide, Bromide

48
Q

Writing Formula For Ionic Compounds

A

Positive ion (Usually metal ion) written first

Negative ion (Usually non-metal ion) written second

Number of each ion adjusted so that positive charge = Negative charge

  • Subscripts used to indicate number of ions present

– Shows ratio, not actual amount

  • Use ‘drop and swap’ method

If non-metal or metal (Ammonium) has more than one element, than when ‘drop and’swap, put brackets around the one with multiple elements, as it is one ion

49
Q

Writing Formula For Covalent Substances

A

Element further left named first
- If two elements in same group, element further down named first

Element further right (Higher if in same group), named second

Number of each ion adjusted so that charges are equal
- Subscripts used to indicate number of ions present
- Use ‘drop and swap’ method

50
Q

What is an Acid

A

Substance that produces H+ ions in a solution

Has a pH of below 7

51
Q

What is a Base

A

Substance that produces OH- ions in a solution

Has a pH of above 7

Metal Oxides and Metal Hydroxides are bases

52
Q

Rate of Reaction Definition

A

How fast a reaction proceeds, does not mean more products are formed in reaction

53
Q

How to Measure Rate of Reaction

A

Measures disappearance of reactant over time

Measures appearance of product over time

54
Q

What is the Collision Theory

A

For reaction to occur, atoms/ions/molecules must collide with enough energy and correct orientation for reaction to occur

  • Model known as collision theory
  • Only some collisions result in reaction

Some collisions don’t result in reaction
- In these, the molecules bounce apart with no reaction

When it does result in reaction;

  • A weak chemical bond forms between the new molecules
    – Substance is unstable, and only exists for short period of time before it breaks apart
55
Q

How to Increase Rate of Reactions By Nature of Reactants

A

Reactions are faster if there is an ion exchange (Ionic) and there is a formation of salts

Reactions are slower if there is a covalent bond formation between molecules, and when there are large molecules being formed

56
Q

How to Increase Rate of Reactions By Surface Area of Particles Reacting

A

Breaking a piece into smaller pieces provides larger surface area on which reaction can occur

Powders have much larger surface areas than large-sized bits of material
- Surface area not size of pieces, but total area exposed to possible collusions

57
Q

How to Increase Rate of Reactions By Increasing Concentration of Particles

A

In dilute solution, particles (molecules/ions) of reactant are spread out in solvent (Eg. Water)
- Lots space between reactant particles

In concentrated solution, there are more reactant particles in same volume, so they are closer together

In solutions with more particles, there are more collisions
- Therefore faster reaction rate

58
Q

How to Increase Rate of Reactions by Increasing Temperature of Reactants

A

Particles in hot substances have more kinetic energy than particles in cold substance

  • Particles in hot substance travels faster than particles in cold substance

Hot particles collide faster & more often than cold particles
- Higher amount of collisions + Greater energy = Greater proportion of collisions will result in reaction

–Because fast-moving molecules can push through repulsion of electrons that orbit atoms

– Therefore the electrons can orbit around different atom

– Faster the molecules, higher the proportion of reactants with enough energy to turn into products

59
Q

How to Maintain Rate of Reaction

A

As reaction proceeds, particles of reactants get used up
- Fewer particles of reactants = Fewer collisions, therefore reaction rate slows
- To maintain reaction rate, products of reaction should be removed & replaced with particles of reactants
- To do this, just stir or mix reactants

60
Q

What is a Catalyst

A

Substance that speeds up chemical reaction, but not used up in the reaction

61
Q

How do Catalysts Work

A

Provide surface on which reaction can occur

Particles of reactants get absorbed (stuck onto) surface, where they react to form products

Products then released from surface of catalyst, freeing up catalyst to be used again

Other catalysts take part in initial reaction, and are regenerated in final reaction

62
Q

What is the Nucleus

A

Membrane-enclosed organelle inside cell that contains chromosomes

They contain an array of holes/pores

63
Q

What is the Ribosome

A

Is the site of protein synthesis in the cell

Ribosome reads messenger RNA sequence and translates into genetic code

64
Q

What is the Purpose of DNA

A

Blueprint for controlling the characteristics of organisms

Each cell, except red blood cells contain DNA

65
Q

What is the Structure of DNA

A

Double-Helix shape, like a ladder that has been twisted

Two strands of poly-nucleotide chains, attatched together by hydrogen bonds (Relatively weak bonds), between nitrogen bases

66
Q

Two Vital Properties of DNA

A

Can make copies of itself, it two strands unwind, each strand can make new DNA molecule

Can carry information: Order of bases along strand is code for making proteins

67
Q

What is the Structure of a Nucleotide

A

Nucleotide is complex molecule, made from three smaller molecules:

  • A nitrogen base
  • Sugar molecule (Deoxyribose)
  • Phosphate Molecule
68
Q

What is a Polynucleotide Chain

A

When nucleotides join together, they form a polynucleic chain called nucleic Acid

  • DNA is two polynucleotide chains
  • RNA is one polynucleotide chain
69
Q

How are Nucleotides Joined Together

A

Nucleotides are joined together by sugar and phosphate groups

  • Sugar of one nucleotide joins to phosphate of next nucleotide
    – Sugar-Phopsphate backbone (Sides of a ladder)
70
Q

What are the 4 Nitrogen Bases

A

4 Nitrogen Base Pairs:
- Adenine
- Thymine
- Guanine
- Cytosine

71
Q

What is the Joining of Nitrogen Bases

A

Large base pairs always bond with small base pairs
- Adenine binds with Thymine
- Guanine binds with Cytosine

This is because it gives correct amount of space between strands
- Base pairs = Complementary bases

72
Q

What is the Controversy of the Double Helix

A

James Watson and Francis Crick identified DNA as a double helix (Two-stranded spiral) in 1953

  • They performed no experiments themselves, they interpreted experiment results from others

–One of them was Rosalind Franklin

In 1951, Rosalind Franklin started working in John Randall’s labratory in King’s College London

  • When she was working, Maurice Wilkins (Another scientist working on DNA) was away
  • Randall gave Franklin responsibility for her part in DNA project

When Maurice Wilkins returned, he thought Franklin was a technical assistant

  • Not surprising, as the situation of women at university was not natural

Between 1951-1953, Rosalind Franklin became close to solving DNA structure

  • Though was beaten to publication by Francis Crick and James Watson
  • Was mainly because of dispute between Wilkins and Franklin

Wilkins showed Watson one of Franklin’s crystallographic images of DNA

  • When James Watson saw picture, the solution became clear, and results were published in journal
  • Franklin’s work was only a supporting article, making her contribution not acknowledged at the time
73
Q

What are Chromosomes

A

X-Shaped objects found in nucleus of most cells
- Consists of long strands of substance called DNA

Every cell in body (Except red blood cells) have 46 chromosomes, or 23 chromosome pairs (Homologous)
- 23 from mother, 23 from father

74
Q

What is the Location of Chromosome

A

Located in nucleus of cell

75
Q

What is the Structure of Chromosome

A

Normally in X arrangements

Made up of DNA molecules tightly wound around proteins

76
Q

What are Bivalent Chromosomes

A

‘X’ shaped chromosome

Two stands are identical to each other

Formed during DNA replication, so that two identical copies are produced

Each strand = Chromatid

Two chromatids are joined at Centromere

77
Q

How Does DNA Fit In Cell

A

DNA fits inside cell because DNA molecules are tightly wound around small proteins called Histones

78
Q

What is a Gene

A
  • Section of DNA that has genetic code for making particular protein = Gene

Specific location has specific genetic code for making the protein

Humans have 1 billion codons, 3 billion nucleotides

Made from Nucleotides

79
Q

How Does Genes Have Different Characteristics/Traits

A

As Chromosomes are made from DNA tightly wound around small proteins called Histones

  • The order of nitrogen bases in each gene contains information for one characteristic/trait

– Eg. Gene may have information for making pigment melanin, giving us skin colour

– Eg. Gene may have information for making keratin for hair & nails

80
Q

What Happens When Gene Needs to Make Proteins

A

When protein needs to be made, DNA in genes unwinds to make complementary base pairs copy called RNA

RNA can then leave nucleus through pores to make copy in cell’s cytoplasm (Protein Synthesis)

81
Q

How Many Genes Does DNA Contain

A

DNA contains two genes (One from mother, one from father), for each characteristic

  • Eg. Eye colour, Hair colour, etc.
82
Q

What is a Codon

A

Sequences of 3 bases

Used to make proteins

83
Q

What is a Karyotype

A

Is the complete set of chromosomes of an individual

  • 46 total Chromosomes
  • Is arranged from largest to smallest
84
Q

What is Homologous Chromosomes

A

Pair of matching chomosomes

Chomosomes are organised into pairs, according to length & banding patterns

85
Q

How Do Cells Change Into Various Roles

A

All complex organisms originated from single fertilised egg

Every cell in body started here, through cell division number of cells increased

Cell then specialise and change into various roles

86
Q

What is Mitosis’ Purpose

A

Mitosis is to create new cells in the body that have been damaged or need to be replaced

87
Q

What is Mitosis

A

Type of cell division where one parent cell divides to form two genetically identical daughter cells

  • In humans, it means parents cells have 46 chromosomes, daughter cells each have 46 chromosomes

Most of the time, cells that are not dividing are in the phase - Interphase

  • Where they do everyday processes (Eg. Making proteins)

Cells only start mitosis when new cells are needed

Every different type of cell in body contains same genes, but only some act to make cells specialise

88
Q

Why is Mitosis Required

A

Esssential for organism to grow/repair damage

Body constantly undergoing mitosis & cytokenisis

Different types of cells live for different times

  • But millions of your cells died and replaced as you read sentence
89
Q

What are Somatic Cells

A

Somatic cells are all cells in body except for egg & sperm (Gamates)

  • When somatic cells reproduce, they undergo mitosis
  • Somatic cells are diploid (Carry two sets of genetic material - One from mother, one from father)
90
Q

What is the Purpose of Meiosis

A

Meiosis is to produce gametes, or sex cells

Half of genetic material in each cell comes from mother, other half from father

91
Q

What are Gamate Cells

A

Sex cell (Egg & Sperm) that has half genetic material of parent cell

  • Male & Female gamates join to make form first cell of offspring
92
Q

What are Haploid Cells

A

Only contains 23 chromosomes

Sperm cell has 23 chromosomes

Egg cell has 23 chromosomes

  • When they combine at fertilisation, diploid somatic cell is produce
  • One set of 23 chromosomes come from mother, another set of 23 chromosomes come from father
  • Is why children are similiar, but not identical, to their parents
93
Q

What is Meiosis

A

Process of cell division that produces haploid gametes

Two haploid gametes (One male, One female) combine to produce the first diploid cell of new organism

Type of cell division where number of chromosomes is halved

Occurs only when gametes are being made

94
Q

What is Sexual Reproduction

A

Requires fusion of male & female gamates (Fertilisation)

  • Each contains genetic information that influences offspring’s characteristics

22 pairs of human chromosomes are matching, but 23rd pair sometimes don’t match

  • 23rd pair are sex chromosomes, determine whether you are male or female
95
Q

What are 3 Factors That Can Create Variation in Sexual Reproduction

A

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

Crossing Over to Mix & Match Chromosomes

Random Fertilisation

96
Q

What is Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

A

Different organisations of chromosomes in sperm & egg after meiosis

  • When cells are haploid, can go mother, father, father or father, father, mother, etc.
  • 2^ 23 different combinations
97
Q

What is Crossing Over to Mix & Match Chromosomes

A

Chromosomes overlap

  • When separating, the tips of the chromosomes get mixed
  • Creates variation
98
Q

What is Random Fertilisation

A

Each sperm cell has equal chance of fertilising egg

If there was only 1 or 2 sperm cells able to fertilise, there wouldn’t be variation

  • Since all have same chance, there is variation

If conditions could change, there could be variation of population, allowing some of them to survive

99
Q

What is Mutation

A

Heritable change in structure or amount of genetic material

  • Permanent change in DNA, may be in one gene or number of genes
100
Q

Different Between Chromosomal and Genetic Mutations

A

If it affects single gene, it is a genetic mutation

  • Causes alteration of nucleotide sequence of a gene

If it affects most of chromosome, it is a chromosomal mutation

  • Causes structural change of the segment of chromosome
101
Q

What Could a Tiny Change in Base Sequence Cause

A

Base sequence in DNA is critical

  • Tiny change in sequence, changes order of amino acids in protein being made, which alters how protein functions
102
Q

What Can Cause Mutation

A

Radiation
Chemicals
UV Light
Viruses

103
Q

What is a Chromosomal Mutation

A

Failure of chromosome pair to separate at the centromere in meiosis

  • Such case, one of daughter cells will have too many chromosomes, other will have too few chromosomes
104
Q

How to Differentiate Between the Different Non-Disjunction Mutations

A

Down Syndrome

  • Where person has 3 copies of Chromosome 21

Females With Turner’s Syndrome

  • Where female has only one X chromosome

Males With Kleinfelter’s Syndrome

  • Where males have 3 X chromosomes
105
Q

What is a Genetic Mutation

A

A change in DNA

106
Q

Where Does Meiosis Occur

A

In reproductive organs (Testes in Male, Ovum in Female)

107
Q

Genetically Identical or Not Meiosis and Mitosis

A

Mitosis - Genetically Identical
Meiosis - Genetically Varied (Similiar)

108
Q

Purpose of Karyotypes

A

Look for unusual changes in chromosomes
Check you and/or family for specific chromosome problems

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