🧠👁👂🏻 Flashcards

Question

Hippocampus

Answer 1

Cognition ame spatial memory Very important for learning Halps is store info into our long term memory

Answer 2

Memory and cognition Episodic and autobiographical memory Maintain attention Social processing Facial recognition First impressions Fear conditioning More emotion the more retention Sexual and aggressive behavior

Answer 3

Nucleus accumbens Ventral tegmental area or atv Amygdala Septum Medial forebrain bundle or mfb

Answer 4

``` Reward Pleasure Laughter Addiction aggression Fear Placebo effect ``` Motivation and pleasure Addiction and depression Dopamine and seratonin (calm) (Pleasure)

Answer 5

Release dopaminergic Cognition Motivation Intense love emotions Likes novelty And unexpected rewards Goes from normal dope to lots of dope by excititory stimulation Causes addiction

Answer 6

Aim to nucleus accumbens Reward and reinforcement Diff Signals are inhibitory Used to regulate behavior

Answer 7

Takes info for | Ventral tegmentum and the nucleus accumbens

Answer 8

Addiction: continued use of a mood or behavior altering substance despite adverse consequences Dependence : body adjusts to incorporate into normal function making the body rely and on it Tolerance: ability to adapt requiring more and more Withdrawal: symptoms both physical and psych when addiction is stopped suddenly ``` Addictiveness factors: Highly stimulating Lots of variety Limitless supply Causes binging ``` Delta fos b - binging mechanism (survival )

Answer 9

Desensitization: dopamine declines and receptors are down graded making it less sensitive for other natural things Sensitization : newly wired brain and reward pathway will start to turn on in response to addiction stimuli or even thouts Hypofrontality: weaken senses of consequences Dysfunctional stress circuits : can cause relapses of stress due to not properly management

Answer 10

Regulate motor control Incorrect of inappropriate movements Swinging arms while walking Output goes to motor cortex Parkinson’s to lttle movement Huntington’s to much movement

Answer 11

Network of neurons that interact with a many brain structures Includes the reticular formation what originated in the brain Stem near the pons and radiates to the cerebellum State of alertness or arousal Sleep wake cycles Damage can cause narcolepsy

Answer 12

Record of electrical signals throughout the brain Beta waves 13-30Hz awake eyes open and engaged Alpha 8-13Hz mind wondering (Only healthy waves for awake adults ^) Theta waves 4-7 Hz are early stages of sleep and in young children Delta waves .5-4 Hz only in deep sleep

Answer 13

REM sleep Non rem sleep Stage 1 2 3 4 Cycle can last about 90 min Starts non rem then cycle up directly to rem Each time it is established it lasts longer 123nrem are generally theta wave Stage 4 norm delta waves (sleep walking and night terrors ) vital signs are the lowest here Rem has most vivid dreams Lack of sleep causes um issues like Alzheimer’s

Answer 14

Acquisition of memory Short term Long term Short term doesn’t stay for more then a few min Working memory: type of short term memory that helps us function on a day to day basis Long term : hippocampus is in charge of creating this which involves physical changes in the neuro pathways in the brain or memory trace Consolidation- short term to long term Repitition is the best way! Explicit memories are more easily lost over time

Answer 15

Membranes that envelope the CNS ``` Dura mater: 2 parts Periosteal layer(connects to the inside of the skull) Meningeal later(deep layer) sometimes floss to form partitions in the brain like falx cerebri ``` Arachnoid mater: directory ended Duda mater Very thin and transparent That lies on top of fluid filled space, Has process that extend down to the Piamater that look like spider webs Subarachnoid space is deep to arachnoid mater and is filled with cerebral spinal fluid Pia mater is very delicate membrane that adheres to brain and spinal chord Diff between brain and spinal chord: dura mater in spinal chord is one layer Not connected to bone Instead there is the epidural space that is filled with adipose tissue 🙂

Answer 16

Produced in the chorus plexus by epidymal cells Which is produced in the two lateral ventricles which then moves to third (now in diencephalon) and then down the cerbral aqueduct to forth ventricle, some goes down to spinal chord to fill central canal The rest goes through the median and lateral apertures and goes to the arachnoid space where it can travel throughout the brain and spinal chord 100-600ml but produced and reabsorbed at about 500ml per day. Basically the same as blood plasma but without the protiens Five functions Buoyancy Electrolyte and circulatory balance Protection Circulation Waste removal

Answer 17

Occur between the duramater and the skull Usually very rapid because homoraages come from damage to the areneros along the inside of the skull Causes a hematoma or bruise, intense headache Skull fracture Can be fatal Surgically draing or removing the hematoma to relieve pain and pressure

Answer 18

Dura mater and the brain Tearing of veigns that cross the subdural surface and space in response to brain injury Shaking baby and whiplash Asprin inhibits the blood clotting which makes this more common Acute are very bad and deadly Chronic are over time like due to a concussion Typically slower because it comes from veigns not arteries

Answer 19

Occur between the arachnoid membrane and pia mater Space filled with csf Can occur by spontaneous rupture or head injury Common symptom Is called thunderclap headache or one that developed in seconds and feels like a kick to the head

Answer 20

Occur within the brain tissue itself Very small blood vessels Trauma or spontaneous rupture Second most common cause of stroke Risk is higher for higher bp

Answer 21

Sensory- smell | Lesion loss of smell the affected side

Answer 22

Sensory vision | Lesion blindness on affected side and loss of pupillary light reflex is

Answer 23

Major function somatic motor to four of the six extrinsic muscles that move the eye Ans innervation: parasympathetic to sphincter papillae muscle contraction. Of the pupil Lesion eye deviation causing double vision Pupil dilation and loss of pupillary light reflex

Answer 24

Somatic motor to superior oblique eye muscle Lesion eye deviation causing double vision

Answer 25

Sensory- general senses of the face and forehead including sensation of much of the mouth and anterior 2/3thds of the tongue Motor-somatic motor to muscles of mastication Lesion loss of sensation in the face and forehead or increased sensitivity to pain known as trigéminal neuralgia also muscle weakness of the the muscles of mastication

Answer 26

Somatic motor of lateral rectus eye muscle Lesion medial deviation of the eye causing double vision

Answer 27

Sensory- taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue Motor - muscles of facial expression Ans inervation- parasympathetic to salivary and lacrimal glands Lesion - facial paralysis often called facial or Bell’s palsy Decreased ability to taste Decreased salivation and crying

Answer 28

Sensor- vestibular branch senses balance . Cochlear branch senses hearing Lesion loss of balance and vertigo Loss of hearing

Answer 29

Motor to swallowing throat muscles Sensory- taste of posterior 1/3 of tongue and Sensory from the pharynx,carotid bod, carotid sinus Ans inervation parasympathetic to salivary glands Lesion trouble swalling, loss of taste, decreased ability to sense and respond to o changes and decreased salvation

Answer 30

Motor - throat muscles involved in swallow and speech Sensory- throat thoracic and abdominal organs Ans inervation; parasympathetic to thoracic and abdominal organs regulating things shuck as the heart and respiratory rate and go tract Lesions: trouble swallowing, hoarse speech, uvula deviation from side lesion

Answer 31

Sternocleidomastoid muscle and trapezius muscle Lesion: muscle weakness and trouble turning the head and elevating the scapula

Answer 32

Somatic motor to tongue and throat muscles Lesion: tongue deviation toward the side of the lesion Trouble manipulating food and swallowing

Answer 33

Pupil dislates or constricts due to light or dark Afferent sensory is handled by Cn 2 Which sends it to the mid brain Which then sends it down CN3 to construct Día lation through sympathetic nerve When shining light causes then to constrict there pupil

Answer 34

Cn 5 has three branches Branch 1 V1 sensory info to the forehead down to the nose V2 maxillary send sensory info to maxilla region Superior to the mandible V3 mandíbular is sensory info to mandible and anterior ear Somatic motor involved in chewing and sensory inervation to the teeth This involves intense pain in any of the areas Very painful! May be due to compression of myelin sheath causing the nerve to be hypersensitive Causing pain to continue

Answer 35

Partial or complete paralysis On one side of face Lesion of facial nerve Inflammation Dormant herpes viral infection Stress Trauma Brain tumor or stroke Treatment : Resolve on their own Corticosteroids can be administered *need to close the eye!!!!!!

Answer 36

Gustation 4000 to 10,000 different chemicals on five taste bud types ``` Salt Sweet Bitter Sour Umami ``` Receptors found in tastebuds which are found within the small bumps called lingual papillae ``` Different papillae Fungi form (mushroom shaped) Circumvalate papillae( large groove surrounding the papillae) Foliate papillae (leaf shaped) Filiform (string shaped) doesn’t have taste buds ``` 2k to 5k taste buds but some can have up to 20k

Answer 37

50-150 receptor cells Start action potentials Replaced every 10 days Most reactive tastants are NaCl salty sucrose sweet Hydrochloric acid as sour Quinine (bitter) Mono sodium glutamate (umami)

Answer 38

Graded potential that triggers an action potential in a neuron Triggered when tastant interacts with receptor causing voltage gated ca channels which causes exocytosis and a neurotransmitter to be released Always increases ca in cells Needs to be disolved in saliva Acids cross through membrane but bitter sweet and umami all bind to gprotien receptors

Answer 39

Proportion of ap from different receptors Input from smell Input from other sensory organs Capsen causes feeling senses through Facial nerve Glossopharyngeal nerve Vagus nerve

Answer 40

Olfactory receptors are neurons Short life span of 2 months Only neurons that routinely die Some animals have a lot more receptors than humans Olfactory epithelium contains millions of neurons that dtetecy 400000 different substances or even up to 1.7 trillion different smells For us to smell chemical needs to dissolve in mucus Then bind to gprotiens on the neuron which activate adynal cyclase which then makes Camp which opens cat ion channels of NA and Ca to enter the cell which depolarizers the mem brain Singnal passes to olfactory bulb and then to the cortex in the temporal lobe Areas are part of the lynbic system and can trigger emotion and memory Does not pass through the thalamus

Answer 41

Outer most layer Connect tissue No blood Sclera and the cornea Sclera is for protection and muscle attachment Cornea clear window for refracting light and protection

Answer 42

Middle layer Most blood vessels found in this layer Posterior portion is the choroid And anterior is the cillary body Cillary muscle is a ring of smooth muscle That is a sphincter And adjusts the thickness of the lens Via suspensory ligaments Cillary process secrete aqueous humor that fills the space in front of the lens ``` Most anterior is the iris Smooth muscle Pigmented melanin Large = brown Small= blue or green Two layered with the pupil hole in the center ``` Sphincter pupillae helps the pupil constrict Dialater pupillae helps pupil día late

Answer 43

Constricted pupil - miosis (parasympathetic) Dislated pupil - mydriasis (sympathetic )

Answer 44

Inner most layer 2 layers Pigment epithelium Dark because of lots of melanin Absorbs light so it doesn’t bounce around Neural layer Inner most Photoreceptors Optic disk: point where optic nerve and blood vessels enter the eye No photo receptors Fovea centralis : small indentuon located in the spatial area(macula lutea) this is where light is focused in your eye (most clear image) Fovea centralis

Answer 45

Biconvex structure Full of cristalines No tention = flat (diameter decreased on muscle) Two fluid filled compartments Anterior cavity is between the lens and cornea and filled with aqueous humor (keeps pressure and provides nutrients) Too much pressure = glaucoma Posterior cavity: behind the lens is filled with vitreous humor which is gel like (turn over is slower)

Answer 46

Far away 20 feet No thickening of the lens Cillary muscles are relaxed and its at its thinnest Closest distance the lens doesn’t have to focus for clear vision.

Answer 47

Lens thickens to objects as they move closer to the eye to refract and focus light.

Answer 48

When the lens is at it’s thickest Too close and it will blur 2-3 inches and up to 5 feet in older adults Lens becomes less elastic as we age and cannot thicken Aka presbyopia

Answer 49

To turn in on “Cross eyed” Helps focus near objects How much of the visual field we can keep in sharp focus

Answer 50

Can see up close but can’t see far away Eyeball has grown too long Image focus happens befor retina Lenses are used to spread light or concave lenses

Answer 51

Less common Opiste of myopia Eyeball is too short Object focuses behind the retina Convex lenses is used to shorten the focal length Can grow out of as one ages

Answer 52

Astigmatism- irregularity in the lens or the cornea making the two sides not symmetrical Part in focus part out of focus Asymmetrical lenses are prescribed to fix this Lens becomes less elastic Covex lenses used to shorten the focal point

Answer 53

Both like a wavelength (color) And a particle (photon) The shorter the wavelength the greater the energy Gama waves are very short Radio waves are ver long and low energy Visibil light range (380nm) violate to (700nm) red Light can either be Transmitted(passes through) Absorbed Reflected

Answer 54

3 cells: Photoreceptors (most posterior layer and they capture light)[rods and cones](rods see only black, low light) (Cones see color and sharp vision) 120000000 rods and 6000000 cones They have an outer segment that touches the pigment epithelium and are composed of flat plates. Difference is that rods all disks are the same size! In cones they are all gradually decrease as they move to the end of the cell Inner segment has organelles and nucleus and the the synaptic terminal is where the photoreceptor connects with bipolar neuron Bipolar neurons - one dendrite and one axon Ganglion cells - the axon forms the optic nerve

Answer 55

Involved in modulating visual signals Not uniform In fovea there are only cones as we move out there are more rods

Answer 56

Very sensitive to light And respond to single photon Several rods come together for one bipolar neuron and several bipolar converge to one ganglionic cell This allows for summation Good for very dim light Inactivated during the day Black and white Visual field is large and not very acute Green light is most effective

Answer 57

Less sensitive but more sharp See colors At night there is not enough light to activate the cones Red green and blue Mix to perceive 1000000 different colors

Answer 58

Rhodopsin- comped of Opsin which is made from retinal Retinal has Bend in unexcited state And bonds nicely with opsin When light is absorbed the energy causes the retinal to change shape and it looses it bend becoming trans and unbinds When the retina detached from Opsen it is called bleaching Opsen is a gprotien that is activated by light Once activated the alpha and other subunits separate Gprotien in the eye is called transducin CGMP gated ion channels are open when the system is inactivated When GPCR reacts with light it triggers transducin and then phosphodiesterase to breakdown cgmp which closes the cation Chanels, Causing hyperpolarization The process is reversed when it diffuses into epithelium where enzymes restore 11- cis state Also when cell is depolarize go voltage gated ca ions open causing exocytosis of glutamate which acts as an inhibitor or excititory depending on the bipolar cell, We focus only on (inhibited bipolar neurons) In daylight rhodopsin remains in the bleached state and make rods unresponsive Visual pigments in cones are similar to rhapsodin but they respond to different wave lengths of light allowing us to see different colors Able to go through bleach process quickly

Answer 59

Travel from ganglion cells to optic nerve through the different canals as they move through the skull and converge at the optic chi asma Where some axons cross other do not Lateral/ temporal half Do not cross over Medial/ nasal half Do cross Left only right hemisphere Right only left hemisphere Middle is both Helps with depth perception After the chi asma the nerve goes to the thalamus and then to the primary optic cortex where it is perceived as an image.

Answer 60

Peak= compressed air Valley=rarefied air Translation of frequency and amplitude Frequency =number of peaks per sec Audible range 20hz to 20000 Hz Most sensitive to 1000-3000 range Low frequency = low pitch High frequency = high pitch Amplitud= degree of compression and rarefaction Measured in decibles A whisper 30 dB Normal conversation 60 dB There is a ten fold increase in intensity So it’s 1000 times louder 120db is the begging of pain threshold

Answer 61

Auricle or pinna External auditory canal Which conducts sound to the tympanic membrane Ear wax is secreted and acts as a lubricant And helps prevent growth of microscopic things Tympanic membrane : boundary between outer and middle ear It acts like a drum and vibrates in response to sound entering the ear Made up of connective and epithelium Very sensitive

Answer 62

Air filled cavity Auditory ossicles Malleus :sits on eardrum Incus : between the two Stapes: connects to the oval window Connected to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube Which allows the middle ear to equilibrate with atmospheric pressure It can either pull or push on drum resulting in pain Typically closed but can open briefly by yawning Swallowing or chewing

Answer 63

Embedded in the Petrous portion Tunnels in the bone =bony labarynth Inside the bone are membranes liners = membranous labrynth And contain hair cells to send action potentials Has the vestibular apparatus =equilibrium and balance Semicircular canals = equilibrium and balance Cochlea

Answer 64

Oval window communicates with the scala vestíbuli, when stapes vibrates causes fluid to vibrate within the space. Hellicotrema - tip of the cochlea Here the scala viestibuli makes any turn and becomes scala tympani (the same chamber most different names) and ends in the round window Both filled with(Perilymph) (extracellular fluid) Cochlear duct is filled with endolymph (intracellular fluid) high k+ concentration Contains the organ of corti

Answer 65

Converts mechanical vibration into action potentials Sits on basilar membrane which seperates the cochlear duct and the scala tympany Detects sound waves Stiff narrow near oval windo becomes wider and more limber as it moves up Which allows for each segment to vibrate at different frequencies High pitch- short hairs Low pitch- long hairs Membrane between cochlear duct and scala vestiubli = vestibular membrane On top of basilar membrane are four rows of hair cells 3 outer 1 inner

Answer 66

Generate action potentials From oval window to heliotrema Have rows of stereo cilia on apical surface Not actually cilia more like microvilli Each hair cell has 50-150 stereocilia Short to tall It can bend back and forth Mechanicaly gated ion channels in cilia respond to vibration Tectorial membrane is right above hair cells and the longest sterocillia of the outer three rows are attached to this membrane

Answer 67

Air is a lot less dense then fluid Requires more energy to go from air to fluid This is beaten by the fact the eardrum is 20 times bigger then the oval window meaning energy in concentrated

Answer 68

Like a guitar string each point of the basilar membrane vibrate at its own unique innate frequency meaning that each part is essentially plucked to make different sounds

Answer 69

A tip link goes from one gate to next on the cilia When cilia bend the tension on the tip link causes the gates to open And when they go the other direction the gates close Endolymph has a lot of k+ So when gates open k+ rushes into the cell Depolarizing the membrane Which opens voltage ca channels Which causes the release of a neurotransmitter Which triggers an action potential in the cochlear nerve which moves to the auditory complex of the brain At rest 10% ca channels are open which have low action potentials traveling to the brain when it is quiet Which allows for increase and decrease of frequency of action potentials depending on which way the cilia is bent

Answer 70

Each area of cochlea is wired to a specific are of auditory cortex Each time it reaches the cortex we perceive sound Loudness is determined by frequency Frequency of action potentials is a function of amplitude of sound waves Other factors: 90% of hearing comes from inner layer of hair cells Outer haircells do this thing called cochlear amplification Which have a protien that allows them to lengthen and shorten Which can inhance or reduce movement Which allows us to focus sounds to a specific area Only outer three layers are embedded in rectors membrane The two membranes act like billows bending the cilia one way or the other and pulling endolymphh into the cavity

Answer 71

Conductive : sound waves can’t move from outside to inner ear (Plugged ear canal)(infection of middle ear) calcification of stapes to the oval window Central: damage to auditory complex (Stroke) Sensorineural:common causes by being exposed to loud sounds and is irresponsible in humans As we get older we can’t hear high frequency sounds

Answer 72

Involves hair cells and fluid movements The difference is how the cilia are bent The hair cells are located in the vestibular apparatus and the semicircular canals Can detect linear movement and the position of our head Sometimes referred to as static labaryth The semi circular canals can detect angular movement and are the kinetic labarynth

Answer 73

Otolith organs which have Macula which is a sheet of hair cells whose cilia are embedded in a gelatinous mass Within the mass there are otoliths (ear rocks) so that when the head tilts the mass slides Bending the hair cells Each ear has two otolith organs with the utricle (horizontal) and saccule (verticals, elevator feeling)

Answer 74

Each one is at right angles of each other Frontal saggital and horizontal Movement causes fluid to move in that direction At the base of each canal are ampulla which have crista The crista contains hair cells that are inbedided in a gelatinous mass called the cúpula Which extends the hair cells to the top of the ampulla When fluid moves it pushes the cúpula bending the cilia With all three we can detect movement at an angle.

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