Unit 4 🧠🥬🌱🥟 Flashcards
(76 cards)
1
Q
Reduction
V
Oxidation
A
Reduced mean you add electrons
Oxidized-means you loose electrons
2
Q
Highest energía bond
A
C-H bonds found in lipids and sugars and protiens
O-H low energy
Ch and oh and co2 and h2o
3
Q
Bioenergetics
A
How energy is transferred Through chemical reactions in living things
Anabolic - build up
Catabolic - tear things down
4
Q
Metabolism
A
All catabolic and anabolic process that a cell is engaged in
5
Q
ATP
A
Energy source
Releases one phosphate to phosphorylate something else
Kinase is used to remove pi from atp
6
Q
NAD+ and FAD
A
Electron carriers
They are reduced to NADH and FADH2
Nad -
Niacin (b3) ring and dehydrogenase enzyme which removes 2 hydrogens one as hydride h- a hydrogen with 2 electrons and a hydrogen cation H+ (no electrons) the hydride bonds to NAD and the cation is released
Fad+ Riboflavin Dehydrogenase removes two hydrogens Each a proton with one electron They both bind to FAD creating FADH2
Both processes are reverse able
7
Q
Glycolysis (simple summary)
A
Breakdown glucose in cytoplasm
Aerobic and anaerobic
Takes 6 carbon glucose
To 2 3carbon pyruvate
Energy is either lost as heat or captured as atp or NADH
Net yield
ATP- 2
NADH- 2
Pyruvate-2
8
Q
Glycogenesis
A
When there is too much glucose
It turns into glycogen and is stored for later
9
Q
Glycolysis step 1
A
Glucose | | ATP—> ADP | | Glucose 6 phosphate
Once it enters the cell
Keeps it from leaving
10
Q
Glycolysis step 2
A
Glucose 6 phosphate | | ATP ——> ADP | | Fructose 1, 6 phosphate
Confirmations all change
Another phosphate is attached
11
Q
Glycolysis step 3
A
Fructose 1,6 phosphate
|
|
/ \
/. \
/. \
DHAP—> glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
(2) glyceraldehyde 3 pho’s
12
Q
Glycolysis step 4
A
Happens 2x
Glyceraldehyde | | Pi —> | | NAD+—> NADH | | (1,3 bisphosphoglycerate)
Removes 2 hydrogens for NADH
13
Q
Glycolysis step 5
A
Happens 2x (1-3 bisphosphoglycerate) | | Adp —->ATP | | | ADP —> aTP | | Puruvate
Substrate level phosphorylation is the transfer of pi from 3carbon molecule to adp to form ATP
14
Q
Anaerobic fermentation
A
NAD+
^
Pyruvate ————|—————> Lactate
|
NADH
Hypoxic lacks o2
Lactate is not poison and is recycled quickly
Does not cause pain
15
Q
Anaerobic metabolism
A
If oxygen is not present allows NADH to become NAD+ again so glycolysis can continue
Produces lactic acid
Very fast but not very effective
Good for sudden bursts of energy but can’t be maintained for long!
16
Q
Aerobic metabolism
A
If oxygen is available
This happens 2x
NADH CoA Pyruvate ——|——-|———|——- acetylcoa
^. Co2
Nad+
Then moves to matrix of mitochondria
Removes 2 protons and 2 electrons
3carbon to 2 carbon
17
Q
Citric acid cycle aka krebs (overview)
A
Series of reactions the completes the catabolic pathway of the gluecose
Stores energy as FADH2 NADH and ATP
Net yield per glucose
ATP 2
NADH 6
FADH2 2
18
Q
Aerobic reapiration step 9 (krebs 1)
A
Acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate —> citrate
(2carbon) + 4(carbon) = 6carbon
Every carbon of glut is lost as co2
(Why we have to exhale)
Only possible with sugars
19
Q
Aerobic respiration step 10
Krebs 2
A
Citrate | | (2)Co2 —-> releases | | (2)nad+—-> (2) NADH | | (2)co2 is released | | (2)nad+—-> (2) NADH | | (2)ATP are produced | | 2 FAD——> 2 FADH2 | | (2)nad+—-> (2) NADH | | Oxaloacetate is reformed
20
Q
Electron transport chain (ETC)
Overview
A
Occurs on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
Takes the NADH And FADH2 which have energy form ch bounds and releases them in order to synthesize ATP
Net yields
NADH- moves 10 h+
FADH2 moves 6 h+
NADH pases 2 electrons to complex 1 which pumps 4 H+ from matrix to intermembrane space
Uniquinone (q) moves electrons to complex 3
FADH passes 2 electrons to complex 2 (doesn’t move h+) but does pass electrons to q
Q sends electrons to complex 3
Once in complex 3 it will pump 4+ hydrogens from matrix to intermembrane space
They then move to cyte c and are carried to complex 4
Once in 4 it will then pump 2 H+ to Intermembrane space
Then o2 finally accepts the electrons creating water
21
Q
Chemiosmosis
A
The diffusion of the h+ through atpsynthase
22
Q
Oxidative phosphorylation
A
When h+ gradient is used as energy to make ATP
ADP + and pi + energy= ATP
Each pair of electrons produce about 2.5ATP (NADH
Or 1.5AtP (FADH2)
NADH yields 3
FADH2 yields 2 ATP
23
Q
Net yields
A
Glycolysis 2ATP per glucose
And the electron transport 34 ATP per glucose
Aprox because some h+ leaks through the outer membrane of mitochondria
24
Q
Lipolysis
A
The breakdown of lipids
Tryglecerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Glycerol enters glycolysis as glyceraldehyde 3 pho’s and becomes pyruvate
Fatty acids enter in krebs as acetyl CoA
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Beta oxidation
Breakdown of a fatty acid into 2 carbon acetyl groups and a coenzyme A
Process continues for every 2 carbons
Each time This 2 carbons are broken off NADH and FADH2 are generated
Each time one acetyl CoA goes through krebs
3NADH
fAD
ATP
Gives more atp per gram then glucose
Occurs in matrix
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Lipogenesis
The process of making new fat
Can be synthesized by combining acetyl groups
Beta oxidation in reverse
Occurs in cytoplasm
New fatty acids are stored throughout the body for long term storage
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Ketoacidosis
Complication when the body is no long metabolizing sugar
Cause
Dieting
Fasting
*type 1 diabetes (cells will mostly metabolize fat)
The citric acid cycle has a limit
When there is to much acetyl CoA
Excess ACetyl CoA combine to form 4 carbon Ketones which make the breath smell like fruity alcohol
Which lowers blood ph making it more acidic
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Gluconeogenisis and protien metabolism
Protiens are broken down into individual amino acids
Some amino acids can enter at different parts of the pathways depending on there r groups
Best choice for making new glucose
Like reverse glycolysis
Happens in the liver
Stimulated when blood sugar is too low
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Upper motor neurons
Found in the cerebral cortex where planning and initiation and coordination of movement occur
Which then articulate with LMN
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Lower motor neurons
In the cranial nerve or in anterior horn of the spinal chord
Which then leave the cns and synapse with a muscle at a neuromuscular junction
(Somatic nervous system) all nerves involved in voluntary movement
Voluntary is top down
Reflexes come from bottom up
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Motor units
A nerve and all the muscle fibers it inervates
Thigh muscles have thousands of fibers I one unit
Fingers and eye muscles have 3to 5
Muscle fibers are all or nothing
When more fibers contract in a motor unit to increase strength this is called recruitment
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Voluntary movement
Begins in the brain(cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum)
```
1 planning (frontal lobe)
2 iniation (premotor area)
3 execution (stimulation of upper motor neurons in motor cortex)
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The first two steps occur in the cerebral cortex and the last step follow the signal from the cns to PNS to muscle
Idea (prefrontal area) and the organizing and planning movement in (premotor area) In the precentral gyris which stimulates the movement in the motor cortex the signal is then sent to lower motor units in the cranial nerve nuclei or anterior horn and sent out to muscle
Aka descending tracts
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Lateral corticospinal tract
Largest descending tract
UMN cross from right side in the brain to the left side in the spinal chord
Left side controls right movement
This crossover is aka decussation which occurs in the medullary pyramids in the brainstem
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Agonist muscle
Performs desired movement
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Antagonist muscle
Opposes desired movement
| Good for controlling and regulating movement speed and strength
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Propiceptors
Are sencesors that relay information about the position of our body and extremities at any given moment
Direction and rate at which we are moving
We also intake input from eyes and ears to regulate movement
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Reflex
Mechanism where the body is able to sense a change and respond appropriately Para maintain homeostasis
Are autonomic and unconsciously
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Receptor
Afferent sensory neuron
Control center
Efferent motor unit
Effector
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Mechanoreceptor
Sensory input that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion
Touch
Pressure
Sound waves
Motion
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Chemoreceptors
Detects a certain chemical stimuli
Ex co2 by receptors in carotid artery which then activated breathing changes
Taste and smell
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Thermoreceptors
Respond to temperature
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Photoreceptors
In the cells of the retina and respond to light which is converted into vision
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Nociceptors
Detach damage in tissue or the threat of damage in a tissue
Perceived as pain
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Monosynaptic
Are simple reflexes that involve a single synapse between two neurons
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Polysynaaptic
Two or more synapses in the more complex reflex
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Somatic reflexes
Stretch
Golgi tendon
And withdraw
All are based in spinal chord but can be influenced by upper neuron functioning
Involve propiceptors Which are located on our
Muscles
46
Stretch reflex
Muscle spindles (propoceptors muscle length) which are intrafusal fibers that run parallel with contractile fibers which are called extrafusal fibers
Occur in highest density near tendons
Intrafusal fibers are only capable of contraction at tapered ends
Don’t contribute to net contraction where they connect with gama neurons
Sensory neurons Intervate the center non contractile región which sense changes in length
If pulled will stimulate an alpha motor neuron (at the anterior horn) that contracts the muscle so it doesn’t stretch to far
Tapered ends contract as the rest of the muscle contracts keeping the muscle spindle at baseline which maintains sensitivity
Aka alpha gama co activation
Recipricle inhibition also occurs and the antagonist muscle is relaxed which prevents injury
47
Golgi tendon organ or GTO
Inhibitory
Results in the opposite as a muscle spindle
Prevents over contraction and tendons from damage
Encapsulated nerve endings That are Inter woven in the collegen fibers of the tendon
Monitor tension rather then length
Sends signals Inter neurons and then inhibitory neurons which inhibit alpha motor neurons which cause the muscle to relax
Brain can override in life or death senarios but can lead to damage
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Withdrawal reflex
Avoid pain and tissue damage
Nociceptors are stimulated by damage which activate lower motor neurons then stimulate the contraction to remove or withdraw ourselves from danger
Generally takes place as flexor muscles are stimulated to contract
Reciprocal inhibition also takes place
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Crossed extensor reflex
This reflex can work in conjunction with withdrawal reflex. The signal also crosses over to the other side of the body to strengthen the opposite limb to account for the nos relaxed original limb.
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Autonomic nervous system
Smooth
Cardiac
And glands
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
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Sympathetic Ns
| Overview
```
Creates fight or flight response
Increase heart rate
Hyperventilation
Shut down of digestion
Increased bp
```
Mydriadis- pupil dilation
And increased blood flow to heart and skel muscles
Shorter pregang
Longer post gang
Pregang ACh
Post gang NE (except sweat glands and some blood vessels ACH )
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Parasympathetic NS
Rest and digest
Decreased heart rate
Decrease bp
Miosis or the constrion of the pupil
Increased digestion
Increased urination
SlUD
```
Salivation lacrimation(tears) urinate defecation
Most secretions of the body increase
```
Longer pregang
Shorter postgang
Pre and post gang ACH
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Is the ANS necesita for organs to function
No they can contract on their own
But ans helps regulate them!
Speed up or slowdown to maintain homeostasis
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Dual automatic innervation
Parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves inervate the same muscle and oppose one another to maintain homeostasis
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ANS organization
| Messaging ssystem
Normally two neurons
Have both preganglionic and post ganglionic neurons
Preganglyonic is Myelinated and post is not
Cell bodies of pre gang are located in the cns
And axon terminals are located in the autonomic ganglia
The synapse between post gang and effector are aka neuroeffector synapse or neuroeffector
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Sympathetic chain ganglia
Located near the column of spine
| Sympathetic
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Collateral ganglia
Located further away from the spine
Aka celiac
Superior mesenteric and inferior Mesenteric
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Terminal ganglia
Parasympathetic
| Located very near the effector organ
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Post gang effector synapse
Swellings called varicosities rather then axon terminals
They secrete neurotransmitters aross synapse to effector organ
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Sympathetic division (SNS)
Cell bodies of pregang located from T1 to L2/3ish on the lateral horn of spinal Column
Go down ventral root
Enter spinal nerve
Then exit via white ramus Communicans (myelinated axons)
And enter sympathetic chain gang
(1)simple
They then cross over to post gang and leave the chain gang through gray ramus communicans (un myelinated axons) and enter spinal nerve which takes them to effector
2
Instead of rendering a spinal nerve it enters a sympathetic nerve instead and travels to thoracic cavity
3 leaves chain gang without synapse and forms a spachnic nerve that then goes to collateral ganglia
They then synapse and post gang goes to organs and glands and vessels in abdominal pelvic cavity
4 similar to splanchnic nerves but instead of synapse it travels straight through collateral ganglia and extend to thr medulla of adrenal gland where they produce epinephrine and norepinephrine
The medullar cells function as post synaptic and 80% release epi and 20% nor epi directly in blood stream
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Spinal nerve and post gang symp
8% of 31 pairs of spinal nerves are post gang symp
```
The can innervate effectors in the skin
Irises lens
Nasal mucous membranes
Salivary glands
Heart
Lungs
Stomach
Intestines
Adrenyl glands
Urinary bladder
```
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PNS pathways
Cranial area
SacrAl área
Cranial : pre gang coming from brain are in brain stem and make up part of cell bodies
Cranial nerve 3 pupil size and shape of lens
Cranial nerve 7 which controls mucus membranes, lacrimal and salivary glands
9 which controls parotid salivary glands
And 10 Vegus thoracic cavity organs and upper abdominal (75-80%) of of all parasympathetic fibers are found in the Vegas nerve
Sacral(lateral horn of spinal chord) axons go to
Pelvic splanchnic nerves and then extend to terminal ganglia located near the effector
Lower half of intestines
Organs of reproductive system
And renal systems
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The enteric nervous system
ENS
Digestive tract from esophagus to the Colon
Myenteric plexus
Submucosal plexus
Which receive preganglionic fibers from the parasympathetic division and post ganglionic from sympathetic division
Is capable of working independently of the cns by way of local reflexes
Enzyme secretions and purpoltion of food
Provides synchronized peristaltic movements
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Enteric pathway
As food enters the digestive tract it stretched receptors in the gut which send action potential sown afferent enteric sensory neurons. These neurons synapse with enteric interneurons which activate enteric motor neurons which innervate glands and smooth muscle
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Sympathetic division chemical and receptors
Pregang releases ACh which binds to nicatinic receptor post gang and then at termial of post gang releases NE which binds to ADREnErgic receptors (A12B123)
Exception is sweat glands where ACh is released by post neuron and binds to muscarinic receptors(M3)
Exception 2 adrenal glands
Go directly to gland no synapse and activates cell. With ACH and N2 receptors which causes the call to release epi and nor epi into the blood stream
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Sympathetic division pathway and chemical receptors
Pregang ACh that binds to nicotinic receptors (N2) then post gang releases ACh again but it binds with muscarinic M12345
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Receptors
Nicotinic are found on all post gang receptors both para and symp
Respond to ACh and become excited
Muscarinic are found on all para effector cells and some sweat symp cells
Respond to ACh which may be excite or inhibit
Adregenic receptors are located on most symp cells respond to NE and can be both excited or inhibited
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Neurotransmitters of ans
Cholinergic neurons produce ACh and store it in end terminals
(Pre of symp and para)(post para and for some reproductive blood vessels and sweat glands of symp)
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Adrigenoc (post neuron of symp)
Produces catecholamines (nor epi and dope)
```
Even is usual inhibitory
Odd is excititory
Epi likes B2 and NE likes alpha 1
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Agonist vs antagonist drugs
Agonist activates and amplifies
Antagonist binds and prevents or inhibits
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Eyes
Outer iris smooth muscles controls size of pupil “dialaters” have alpha 1 receptores
Cause myrdriasis when contract which is symp
The inner sphincter puppille controls how much light enters the eye
Para and have m3 receptors cause miosis
Phenylephrine is an alpha 1 agonist
And atropine is a muscarinic antagonist
Both are mydriatics and are taken by eye drops
Lens focuses the image (cillary muscles help control shape of lense for shar focus ) flat fat domed close
Para and symp
Beta 2 cause flatter lens
Muscarinic receptors make more domed lens
Atropine can also blurr vision for near objects (cycloplegia)
Cillary muscles also cause tension in trabecular network which allows for the opening of pores and the out glow of aqueous humor into the canal of Schlemm and and back into circulation (M)
Pilocarpine muscalinc agonist can treat elevated Intraocular pressure by letting the fluid flow out
Beta 1 stimulation on cillary body increase production of aqueous humor
Beta1 agonist betaxolol are also used to treat glaucoma (inter eye pressure)
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Blood vessels
Alpha 1 receptors on smooth muscle cells
Activation increases ca which causes the muscle to contract which narrows the artery and and reduces blood flow
Arteries of certain organs in musing skeletal or cardiac muscle have beta 2 receptors
In addition to alpha 1. B2 are actives by epi which causes relaxation of smooth muscle and vasodilation Depending on the ratio of alpha and beta and concentration of epi in blood stream
Prazosin is alpha 1 antagonist used to treat high bp
The vast majority of blood vessels are not involved with parasympathetic response
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Sweat glands
Only innervated by symp
Stimulated by muscarinic receptors are activated by stress are located on the soles palms genitalia and armpits and have a1 receptors
Terazosin is another alpha 1 antagonist that can treat excessive sweating
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Heart
Symp and release of catecholamines. From adrenal glands increase heart rate due to high concentration of beta 1 receptors
Atenolol is a beta 1 agonist and can treat high bp
Decrease heart rate
Parasympathetic M or muscualinic agonist have opposite effect
Atropine a músculinic antagonist is used in emergency Med to start the heart back up after cardiac arrrest Which blocks parasympathetic activity
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Lungs
Activation of muscarinic receptors on smooth muscle lining result in the constriction of the air way
While beta activatated by circulated epinephrine causes the airway to open up)
Beta 2 is only activated by circulating epi and not by norepinephrine from post gang
Ipratropium muscarinic antagonist
Alburterol is beta 2 agonist
Both are administered via enhaler
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Stomach and intestines
Para are much more extensive then symp
Para includes secretion of glands mixing and digesting food, and movement down the tract.
Many muscarinic and fewer alpha 1 and beta 2 are located in the smooth muscle
Activation of muscarinic and blocking of alpha and beta causes better digestion
Bethanechol offers a jumó start to normal gut motility and is a muscarinic agonist
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Alpha 1
B3
B1
Primarily found on blood vessels
Beta 3 (fat cells)
Beta 1 everything else
