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Parker Bio > . > Flashcards

. Flashcards

1
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Water is used to break down the chemical bonds that exists between a particular substance.

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2
Q

Uncertainty

A

Amount of error your measurements might contain

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3
Q

Steroids

A

Lipids, hydrophobic and soluble in water.

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4
Q

Triglyceride

A

Type of lipid, three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. Major form of energy storage and used for insulation and protection of organs

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5
Q

Water potential

A

Pressure exerted by water molecules on a membrane (kPa)

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6
Q

Isotonic solution

A

No net movement of water particles. Cell membrane is attached to a cell wall

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7
Q

Hypertonic solution

A

Water particles move out of the cell. Cell membrane shrinks and detaches from the cell wall

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8
Q

Hypotonic solution

A

Water particles move out of the cell. Cell counteracts osmotic pressure to prevent swelling and lysis

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9
Q

Sunken stomata

A

Prevent water loss

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10
Q

Exocytosis

A

Secretion from the cell, vesicle containing molecules of substances fuses with the inside of the cell membrane and the molecules are secreted form the cell

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11
Q

Endocytosis

A

Process of capturing a substance or particle from outside the cell by engulfing it with the cell membrane, and bringing it into the cell

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12
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Where fluid and dissolved substances and molecules are taken up by the cell.

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13
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Cells can engulf pathogens or cells and internalise them.

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14
Q

Lymph

A

Clear fluid that contains immune cells and waste products, instead of blood. Delivers proteins and nutrients to your blood and helping to dispose of dangerous substances

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15
Q

Purines

A

Adenine and guanine
Two carbon nitrogen rings bases

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16
Q

Pyrimidines

A

Cytosine and thymine
One carbon nitrogen ring bases

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17
Q

What is a gene?

A

A sequence of dna (nucleotide) bases that codes for:
- amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
- a functional RNA (eg. Ribosomal RNA or tRNA)

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18
Q

What is a chromosome?

A
  • long, linear DNA + it’s associated his tone proteins
  • in the nucleus of eukaryotic
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19
Q

Methylation

A

Regions with low or no transcriptional activity are densely packed

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20
Q

Acetylation

A

Regions with high transcriptional activity are loosely packed. Transcription factors can bind the DNA and genes are expressed

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21
Q

B- lymphocyte

A

Involved in the humoral response and procure antibodies specific to the antigen. Antibodies bind to antigens and causes the virus to clump together/ agglutinate

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22
Q

T- lymphocyte

A

Involved in the cell mediated response and are involved in producing t-helper cells and t killer cells

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23
Q

Genome

A

the haploid set of chromosomes in a gamete or microorganism, or in each cell of a multicellular organism.

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24
Q

Glycoprotein

A

A molecule that consists of a carbohydrate plus a protein

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25
Q

Zitwerrion of amino acid.

A

The term zwitterion is used for a molecule that carries both the positive and negative charges and thus, is electrically neutral. As mentioned earlier, all amino acids carry a weak acidic group and a weak basic group. At the physiological pH of the human body, the carboxylic group of amino acids easily donates its proton that is immediately accepted by its amino group.

Thus, at the physiological pH, the carboxylic group of amino acids is ‘deprotonated’ and carries a negative charge, while the amino group is ‘protonated’ and carries a positive charge. Both the negative and the positive charges cancel out each other, resulting in a neutral amino acid that behaves as a zwitterion.

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26
Q

Pollination

A

Process of transferring the male gametes (pollen grains) in plants from the male reproductive part (anther) to the female reproductive part (stigma)

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27
Q

Advantages of cross pollination

A

-increase variation in the population
-ensures inbreeding occurs
-widens the gene pool
-increase number of variants for natural selection

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28
Q

Disadvantages of cross pollination

A

-needs another plant in nearby area
-need pollinating agent
-waste of energy/gametes/pollen
-takes longer and generates fewer offspring

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29
Q

Germination

A

Process by which a seed emerges from a period of dormancy and begins to sprout. It involves the growth and development of the embryo root and embryo shoot.

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30
Q

Germination

A

Process by which a seed emerges from a period of dormancy and begins to sprout. It involves the growth and development of the embryo root and embryo shoot

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31
Q

Spermatids

A

Non- motile haploid cells after meiosis two

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32
Q

Spermatozoa

A

Haploid functional gametes, capacitated to form motile sperm

33
Q

Accessory cells in spermatogenesis

A

Sertoli cells, secrete fluid into the lumen of seminiferous tubule

34
Q

Leydig cells in testis

A

Have an endocrine action as they produce and secrete hormone- testosterone

35
Q

When does crossing over occur in spermatogenesis

A

Only in primary spermatocyte

36
Q

Bacteriocidal antibiotics

A

Kill the bacteria by either preventing cell wall synthesis or by disrupting protein synthesis in batería.

37
Q

Bacteriostatic antibiotics

A

Prevent the growth and reproduction if bacteria, but do not kill them. Eg, tetracycline

38
Q

Disease

A

Malfunction of the body or mind, which adversely affects the health of the individual

39
Q

Virulence

A

Ability of a pathogen to cause a disease

40
Q

Retrovirus

A

Genetic information is in the form of RNA not DNA

41
Q

Gram negative bacteria

A

-stains pink
-thinner peptidoglycan cell wall
-outer lipopolysaccharide envelope

42
Q

Gram positive bacteria

A

-stains purple
-thick peptidoglycan cell wall
-no outer envelope

43
Q

How to do a gram stain

A

-prepared bacterial slides are stained with crystal violet for 30 seconds before washing briefly with water
-the slide is then flooded with grams iodine to bring the crystal violet-iodine complex to the peptidoglycan wall
-after one minute the slide is rinsed with water followed by alternate washes of 95% alcohol and water for 30 seconds until no further colour loss can be seen
-a counter stain is now used to colour any of the cells that have none of the crystal violet colour left after the washing. A counter stain such as safranin is added and left for 30 seconds. This stains any cells that have not refrained the crystal violet
-the slide is then blotted, dried and observed under the microscope. The differences in colour will determine wether gram-negative or gram-positive bacteria are present

44
Q

Bacterial cell morphology- cocci, bacilli, spirilla

A

Cocci- spherical shape
Bacilli- rod shaped
Spirilla- corkscrew shape

45
Q

Herd immunity

A

Describes how many people in a population have immunity to that pathogen. If herd immunity is high, epidemics are less likely to happen as someone with the disease is more likely to encounter people who are already immuned

46
Q

Defence mechanisms- non-specific responses

A

-Barriers, skin, conjunctiva, ciliates epithelial lining of the airways, stomach lining
-inflammation, mast cells release compounds- histamine
-phagocytosis

47
Q

Defence mechanisms- specific responses

A

-cell mediated response using T lymphocytes
-humoural response using antibodies

48
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Phagocytosis cells- neutrophils
-pathogens release chemicals and the damaged cells release cytokines- attracting phagocytes
-pathogen becomes attached to receptors on the cell surface membrane of the phagocyte either directly or by linking molecules- opsonins
-phagocytes surround the pathogen with a phagosome
-lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes fuse with the phagosome, harmless products are released in the cytoplasm

49
Q

Clonal selection

A

-dendritic cell comes into contact with antigen from foreign pathogen
-binds to the pathogen and expresses the antigen on its csm
-travels through the lymphatic system to the lymph nodes where the b and T cells have gathered
-t cells pick up the antigen and divide to form t helper cells
-t helper cells divide to create and activate: t killer cells, monocytes, b helper cells or b memory cells
-b helper cells can differentiate to produce plasma cells that secrete antibodies against the pathogens antigens
-b helper cells can also differentiate into memory cells so that the immune response reacts quicker if the pathogen is to occur again

50
Q

Antibodies structure:

A

Soluble glycoproteins
-constant region
-variable region, unique antigen binding site

51
Q

How do antibodies destroy pathogens:

A

-agglutination, clump bacterial cells together
-precipitation of soluble antigens
-lysis, attract proteins to destroy cells
-neutralisation of the toxins
-opsonins

52
Q

Active immunity

A

Natural- antibody production following infection
Artificial- vaccine of weakened/died pathogens trigger an immune response

53
Q

Passive immunity

A

Natural- maternal antibodies pass along the placenta or in breast milk
Artificial- injection of antibodies for temporary immunity

54
Q

Locus

A

Position of a gene on a chromosome

55
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic constitution of an organism

56
Q

Phenotype

A

Expression of genetic constitution and interaction with the environment

57
Q

Allele

A

Version of a gene

58
Q

Gene

A

Length of dna on a chromosome that code for the production of. One or more polypeptide chains and functional rna

59
Q

Short term changes to circulatory and respiratory system

A

-heart rate to increase
-vasodilation of arterioles in the skeletal muscle
-increased blood flow to active muscles
-increase in stroke volume
-reduced blood flow to the digestive system
-vasodilation to the arterioles supplying the surface of the skin
-incr breathing rate and depth of breathing

60
Q

Long term effects of exercise

A

-incr vo2 max and stroke volume
-incr heart size
-decr heart rate
-incr in no and size of mitochondria in the myocytes

61
Q

Indirect measurement of vo2 max

A

Bruce treadmill test
-multilevel treadmill test
-can check nerve impulses from SAN in patients with suspected CHD

62
Q

Direct measurement of vo2 max

A

Gas analysers
-measure respired gases
-more accurate and specific data

63
Q

Environmental factors that can affect vo2 max

A

Temperature- as decr solubility of gas incr- incr vo2 max

Altitude- po2 decreases as altitude increases- decr vo2 max

64
Q

Effects of lactic acid

A

-dissociates to form lactate and proton
-accumulation of protons, ph falls, acidic environment
-decr in pH, stops glycolysis
-also stops lactate pathway, prevents atp production, cell and tissue death

65
Q

Cori cycle

A

-lactate is transported from skeletal muscles to hepatocytes
-lactate broken down in the presence of O2 to pyruvate, using lactate dehydrogenase
-LDH uses the protons removed from lactate to reduced a molecule of NAD to red NAD
-pyruvate then enters the mitochondria via a carrier protein for either:
Route 1 or route 2

66
Q

Route 1 of cori cycle:

A

-Pyruvate may be converted to CO2 and acetyl coenzyme A using pyruvate dehydrogenase
-aCoA then enters the kerbs cycle- production more ATP
-liver turns lactic acid into glucose- gluconeogenesis

67
Q

Route 2 of Cori cycle:

A

-when lactic acid is abundant in the liver cells after exercise
-pyruvate carboxylate adds a a molecule of bicarbonate to pyruvate, then converted to oxaloacetate
-reaction requires an energy input in the form of a molecule of atp
-OAA is then converted back to glucose inside the cell through a series of enzyme-chemical reactions

68
Q

Oxygen defecit definition

A

Difference between the oxygen demand of the active muscles and the oxygen the active muscles actually recieve is. Called the oxygen deficit

69
Q

EPOC definition - oxygen debt

A

Increased use of oxygen consumed after vigorous exercise

70
Q

Formula to calculate epoc

A

Tidal volume of O2 consumed during recovery period- tidal volume of o2 consumed at rest = EPOC

71
Q

Tidal volume definition

A

the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs with each respiratory cycle

72
Q

Association

A

Binding of an oxygen molecule to 1 harm group to form oxyheamoglobin

73
Q

Dissociation

A

Release of an oxygen molecule from 1 harm group within oxyhb

74
Q

Dissociation curve

A

Relationship between partial pressure of O2 and the saturation of the respiratory pigment

75
Q

Partial pressure calculation

A

Volume of specific gas/ volume of all gases = pressure of specific gas/ pressure of all gases

76
Q

What does the Bohr shift promote

A

The release of oxygen from oxyhameoglobin
-lower partial pressure of oxygen as more co2 present
-oxyhb molecules pick up protons, forming haemoglobonic acid, promoting the release of oxygen

77
Q

Types of gene mutations - change in one or more DNA bases

A

-substitution
-insertion
-deletion

78
Q

Type of chromosome mutations- mutation of genetic material

A

-duplication
-deletion
-inversion
-translocation

79
Q

Pollutants

A

Substances released into the environment which can harm organisms or environment itself

Parker Bio (5 decks)

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