T 1.10-1.14

Question 1

Tectonic context of the Philippines

Answer 1

• situated on complex multiple player boundary in ring of fire
• 2 major destructive margins joined by conservative margin
• has 37 volcanoes with 18 active ones
• 12 destructive earthquakes recorded in last 40 years
• eastern and northern coasts face the Pacific Ocean
• events can leave steep rugged slopes and poor vegetation

Question 2

Hydro-meteorological context of Philippines

Answer 2

• tropical monsoonal climate brings rain bearing winds
• lies within SE Asia’s typhoon belt
• average of 20 typhoons hit the country, 7-10 expected to be destructive
• high risk of storm surges, floods and landslides
• El Niño brings periodic drought like in 1998

Question 3

Development context of Philippines

Answer 3

• rapidly developing lower middle income country with large population (101 million with 1.72% annual growth)
• rapid urbanisation has led to large unplanned informal settlements and high pop. densities
• 25% of population live in poverty
• 50% of rural population like in poverty
• high levels of deforestation and widespread corruption

Question 4

Facts and figures about Philippines country

Answer 4

• ranked 3rd in world risk index 2016
• eight the ten most risky cities from natural hazards in here
• 74% of population exposed to two or more hazards
• called a multiple hazard zone
• 555 major hazard events experienced between 1960-2015

Question 5

Negative impacts of previous hazard events in Philippines

Answer 5

• tectonic events leave steep slopes, rugged land and poor vegetation cover
• extreme weather events/ heavy rainfall, eg La Niña saturate the soil and trigger mud/landslides particularly if the vegetation has been removed
• heavy rain with volcanic ash, creating large lahars that kill lellle eg, typhoon Yüna in 1991
• eruptions release water and the plume creates static charges that creates lighting and thunderstorms

Question 6

What happened in 1991 in the Philippines?

Answer 6

• mount pinatubo and typhoo Yüna
• June 15th 1991, second largest eruption of 20th century (VEI 6) generated large pyroclastic flows and clouds of volcanic ash
• event coincided with typhoon Yüna with winds of up to 120mph
• rainfall mixed with volcanic ash = devastating lahars that swept through towns

Question 7

Stats of 1991 disaster Philippines

Answer 7

• 847 reported to have died
• 73k houses damaged by heavy wet ash
• economic impact estimated at 211 million
• powerful eruption ejected significant quantities of aerosols and dust into the stratosphere

Question 8

What happened in 2006 in the Philippines?

Answer 8

• Mount Mahon and typhoon Durian
• active strati volcano erupts frequently (50+ in past 500)
• activity and perfect shape is major tourist attraction
• quiet and effusive eruptions throughout 2006
• typhoon Durian caressed volcanoes path in November
• rainfall, flooding, mudflows and lahars

Question 9

Stats of 2006 Philippines disaster

Answer 9

• 457mm rainfall = flooding in legazpi city (main port)

- Rainfall mixed with ash debris an debris to create mudflows and lahars that buried farms and villages, killing 1250+

Question 10

Catania facts and figures

Answer 10

• east coast of Sicily on the base of mount Etna
• last major eruption in 2006
• benefits from fertile soils and vineyards
• airspace impact can close Catania airport

Question 11

physical factors that affect resppmse

Answer 11

• geographical accessibility of location
• type of hazard (scale, impact magnitude, frequency)
• topography of the region
• climate

Question 12

Human factors that affect response

Answer 12

• number of people involved
• degree of community preparedness
• technological resources
• education and training
• infrastructure
• economic wealth

Question 13

Why does Sicily struggle to cope?

Answer 13

• each eruption is difficult - crust fracture points in different places, lava viscosity and gas eruptions vary considerably
• unexpected timings of minor eruptions
• computer modelling only as good as data that goes in
• municipality of government - politics of deciding who has responsibility

Question 14

Vulnerable infrastructure in Sicily

Answer 14

• sapienza ski refuge with cable car and ski lifts, together with northern ski resort
• the round etna railway
• Catania airport

Question 15

Vulnerable communities in Sicily

Answer 15

• rural - vineyards, olive groves, Mediterranean agriculture on rich volcanic soil
• main roads around the edge of the island to Palermo and Messina docks

Question 16

Summer tourism in Sicily

Answer 16

• ash, like cement is water proof so very difficult to remove
• built Earth barriers/ explosives to disrupt and redirect lava

Question 17

National governance in Sicily

Answer 17

• financial assistance from the Italian government is often needed - perhaps 5-6 million to account for losses in tourism and agriculture

Question 18

Scientists in Sicily

Answer 18

Use a multi component gas analyser system

Question 19

Regional politics in Sicily

Answer 19

• 10 municipalities meet at one point, making it extremely difficult to decide who is responsible for what

Question 20

What does the hazard management cycle consist of?

Answer 20

Preparation
Response
Recovery
Mitigation

Question 21

What’s preparation?

Answer 21

• strategies that focus on ensuring that emergency services and people at risk are aware of how to react during an event, occurs after the hazard response

Question 22

What’s response stage?

Answer 22

Focused on the immediate needs of the population, such as the protection of life and property and includes firefighting, emergency services, evacuation, etc

Question 23

What is the recovery stage?

Answer 23

• recovery is the equivalent to long term responses and is where the city authorities focus on clean up and rebuilding, can take months or even years

Question 24

What’s the mitigation stage?

Answer 24

• involves authorities looking at the impact of the hazard and rebuilding in a better way to reduce similar impacts from a future hazard

Question 25

describe the Himalayas

Answer 25

• Tethys ocean between India and Asia close 50 million years ago(was subducted)
• fold mountains thrust upwards with continental collision - collision boundary
• continue to be uplifted at rate of roughly 2cm a year

Question 26

what are L waves?

Answer 26

Love waves:

• slowest but most destructive wave only move at surface
• they have the largest amplitude and shake the ground from side to side as wave travels forward

Question 27

what are P waves?

Answer 27

Primary waves

• have a shirt wavelength and travel fast through both solid rock and liquid
• waves push and pull in the direction of travel to create compressional and extensional zones

Question 28

what are S waves?

Answer 28

• longer wavelength and movement is perpendicular to direction of travel
• slower than P waves and only moves through solid rock - not liquid!

Question 29

Effects of wave:

Answer 29

tsunamis
landslides
liquefaction
aftershocks 
fires (ruptured gas/electricity lines)
spread of disease

Question 30

what are the primary effects of a wave?

Answer 30

those that happen as a direct result of earthquakes such as:

• ground shaking
• crustal fracturing - energy released caused crust to crack and land to be displaced vertically

Question 31

what are the secondary effects of a wave?

Answer 31

those that are indirectly caused by earthquakes, often causing much more damage than initial shaking;

• landslides
• liquefaction

Question 32

how are landslides caused?

Answer 32

shaking places rock slopes under increased stress which could lead to failure

Question 33

how is liquefaction caused?

Answer 33

surface rocks lose strength in violent shaking and become more liquid than solid, thus losing its ability to support building foundations and cars

Question 34

what are aftershocks?

Answer 34

• often smaller earthquakes can continue to occur whilst the fault settles down or readjusts to the initial release of strain
• can significantly hamper response and recovery
• 5.3 magnitude in Christchurch 2011

Question 35

how to predict earthquake waves?

Answer 35

• very difficult to price accurately, foreshocks are being looked at to provide precursors for a potential earthquake
• animal behaviour could also be a sign
• p waves can be useful to trigger early warning systems which aids immediate responses

Question 36

inequalities to access of housing in Nepal

Answer 36

• nepalese share inherited property, so very tall, thin houses are split vertically
• 5 million people crammed into shoddy concrete buildings, narrow alleys and hillside in he capital Kathmandu

Question 37

inequalities to access of education in Nepal

Answer 37

• access to schools in mountain environment is hard - 6000 schools destroyed
• illiteracy rates - 71% female, 44% male

Question 38

inequalities to access of healthcare in Nepal:

Answer 38

• close contact causes disease and infection spreading, particularly in shelters.
• rural areas - hospital is a 3hour walk through mountains
• medicines require payment

Question 39

inequalities to access of equal income in Nepal:

Answer 39

• caste structure creates division
• Dalits living in stone/mud houses which collapse due to quake tremors
• 80% of concrete dwellings, occupied by higher castes state intact
• more debris reduces food supply (mix and contamination)

Question 40

Nepal earthquake 2015 facts and figures

Answer 40

• 9k dead, 22k injured
• magnitude 7.8
• avalanche on Mount Everest kiled 21
• huge damages to UNESCO world heritage sites

Question 41

Earthquake in Bam description

Answer 41

• 5.26 am
• cold weather
• arabian and eurasian plates collided

Question 42

Bam facts and figures

Answer 42

• relatively low magnitude of 6.6
• 2003
• 26k+ people died
• focus depth of only 7km

Question 43

what is governance?

Answer 43

• ability of an organisation or group of people to plan or manage hazard events effectively
• eg, local governments might organise evacuation strategies
• national gov might finance emergency care, etc

Question 44

governance factors in Bam

Answer 44

• old mud brick buildings key to tourism (2400 yrs old)
• Iranian building code had not been effectively reinforced
• heavy roofs in buildings
• wooden structures were pre weakened by termite damage
• 3 main hospitals all destroyed in the EQ
• infrastructure blocked by rubble - harder to access

Question 45

geographic factors in bam

Answer 45

• bam is isolated - 190km away from nearest town
• desert environment provides resources for mud houses
• located on complex tectonic setting, prone to faulting and thrusting of the crust
• cold winter temperature
• seismic waves caused significant ground shaking

Question 46

Inequality is not inevitable

Answer 46

• The tectonic setting determines the nature of the hazard, e.g. 90% of tsunamis are in the Pacific Ocean
• Governance can reduce vulnerability, e.g. San Francisco has strict building codes
• Education can also reduce vulnerability, e.g. Japan

Question 47

Inequality is inevitable

Answer 47

• Some communities are isolated, e.g. Nepal
• Socio-economic characteristics are vital – e.g. quality of housing,
• Not everyone can access education, and governance does not always govern everyone, (structural inequality)
• Older and younger groups will also be medically more vulnerably