Paper 2 - Approaches

Question 1

Define controlled procedures

Answer 1

The same standardised instructions were given to all participants and stimuli were presented in the same order

Question 2

Define Structuralism

Answer 2

An experience is scientifically analysed in terms of its components, focusing on the mental functions of thoughts, images and sensations

Question 3

Who is Wilhelm Wundt and what did he contribute

Answer 3

Wundt, known as ‘the father of psychology’ and he set up the first psychology laboratory. The laboratory had the primary objective to document and describe human consciousness
Wundt’s work is significant because it marked the beginning of scientific psychology
He introduced the idea of structuralism and the use of introspection as well as reductionism. His work paved the way for later controlled research

Question 4

Evaluate Wundt’s Contribution to Psychology

Answer 4

One strength of Wundt’s work is that some of this methods were systematic and well-controlled. All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab, ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor. This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as behaviourist approach

One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today. Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. Such data is subjective. Also participants may ahve hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from such data. This suggests that some of Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry

Question 5

Define introspection and explain what principles it is based on

Answer 5

The first systematic experiemental attempt to study the mind by breaking down the conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensation

Determined- all behaviour is seen as being caused
Predictable- it is possible to predict how human beings would behave in different conditions

Question 6

What research went into introspection

Answer 6

Introspection involved Wundt training participants to focus on an everyday object and look inwards, noticing sensation’s feelings and images

He strictly controlled the environment where introspection took place:
- Stimuli (e.g. images or sounds)
- Tasks (e.g. a description of their perception or emotions) that participants were asked to consider
This allowed for an objective and systematic reporting of an experience of an object

Question 7

What was the timeline of the emergence of psychology

Answer 7

1956-1650 - Dualism - Rene Descartes
1632- 1704- Empiricism- John Locke
1809 - 1882- Evolution - Charles Darwin
1879 - Introspection Structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt
1900- The psychodynamic approach - Sigmund Freud
1900-50s - The Learning Approaches: ( Behaviourism and SLT)- BF Skinner, Ivan Pavlov. Albert Bandura
1950s - The Humanistic Approach - Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
1960s- The Cognitive Approach - Elizabeth Loftus
1980s - Biological Approach

Question 8

Evaluate the emergence to psychology

Answer 8

One strength is that research into modern psychology can claim to be scientific. Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences. The learning, cognitive and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods. This suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline

One limitation with psychology with psychology is that not all approaches use objective methods. The humanistic approach rejects the scientfic approach, preferring to focus on individual experinces and subejctive experience. The psychodynamic appproach makes use of the case study method which does not use representative samples. Finally, the subject of study- human beings- are active participants in research, responding for example to demand characteristics. Therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience may not always be desirable or possible

Question 9

Outline the Key assumptions in the Behaviourist Approach

Answer 9

• A focus on the observable behaviour - Only behaviour that can be observed and measured should be studied. not concerned with studying mental processes. (Rejects introspection.)
• A focus on scientific and experimental methods - maintain control and objectivity in their research. Therefore, they relied on laboratory experiments for their research
• The basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species - this means that behaviourists often use animals in research in place of humans as they believe results can be generalised across species (e.g., the principles of classical conditioning and operant conditioning).

Question 10

Outline Classical Conditioning in the behaviourist approach

Answer 10

• Classical Conditioning - “Learning by Association” - Pavlov’s Dogs
• It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together – an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus.
• The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unlearned stimulus alone.

Pavolv’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell ( a stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation repsonse every time they heard the sound. Thus Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus, in this case a bell, can come to elicit a new response (conditioned response) through association

Question 11

Outline how phobias are acquired using Little Albert study

Answer 11

• Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated the learning of a phobia through classical conditioning in a boy called ‘Little Albert’.
• Stimulus Generalisation - occurs when an organism’s response previously conditioned by one stimulus can then be evoked by another stimulus having similar characteristics

White Rat (Neutral stimulus) ——— No response ( Neutral response)
Loud noise (Unconditioned stimulus) ——— Fear response (Reflex)
White rat + Loud Noise (Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus) ———– Fear response (Reflex)
White rat ( Conditioned Stimulus) ——– Fear response (Conditioned response)

(e.g. Little Albert having the same conditioned response when presented with anything white and fluffy - Watson with a white Santa beard).

Question 12

What principles is Operant Conditioning Research based done

Answer 12

Operant conditioning is based on the following principles:
* Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward (something good) for a behaviour increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future.
* Negative reinforcement: when a behaviour leads to an unpleasant aspect being avoided/removed. Again, this makes the behaviour more likely to be seen in the future
* Punishment: if a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence, the behaviour will be less likely to be repeated in the future.

Question 13

Outline Skinner Research into Operant conditioning

Answer 13

Skinner conducted experiments with rats. and sometimes pigeons, in specially designed cages called Skinner boxes. Every time the rate activated a level within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. From then on the animal would continue to perform the behaviour.

Skinner also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus. for example a electric chock

Food pellet - Positive reinforcement
Electric shock - negative reinforcement

Question 14

Briefly outline what is meant by stimulus generalisation

Answer 14

Stimulus Generalisation - occurs when an organism’s response previously conditioned by one stimulus can then be evoked by another stimulus having similar characteristics
(e.g. Little Albert having the same conditioned response when presented with anything white and fluffy - Watson with a white santa beard).

Question 15

Outline the contribution of Pavlov and Skinner into understanding human behaviour

Answer 15

Pavlov and Skinner’s research (and theories) contributed greatly to psychology as they enhanced our understanding of human behaviour:

• It Made psychologists appreciate how behaviour is learnt and environmentally determined
• They emphasised the need for large-scale data gathering, which is desirable in science. This also allowed for generalisation, which, in turn, led, to the development of laws and principles
• They gave us theories of learning and laws of learning (classical and operant conditioning) that emphasised the importance of consequences (behaviour that is rewarded likely to be repeated)
• Their theories have been practically applied in many fields, such as therapy and education

Question 16

Evaluate the Learning Approach Behaviourism

Answer 16

One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research. Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus- response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause-and effect relationships to be established. For instance, Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal’s behaviour. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility

Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that the principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems. For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions. such as prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. According to Skinner, our past conditioning history determined the outcome. This ignores any possible influence that free will have on behaviour (skinner himself said that free will is an illusion). This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour

Question 17

Outline the key assumption in Soical learning theory

Answer 17

“Learning by Observation”

The key difference is that SLT argues mental processes influence our responses to stimuli.

• People learn through observation and imitation
• Bandura’s SLT argues people learn through experiences; however, SLT argues learning is social and can occur directly (e.g. through classical and operant conditioning)
  Also also indirectly through observation and imitation and vicarious reinforcement.

Question 18

Outline Vicarious reinforcement in the Social Learning Theory

Answer 18

Vicarious reinforcement is key:
* Vicarious reinforcement is when the reinforcement is not experienced directly by a person but when a person observes someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
* A person must observe the behaviour of a model (another person). They will then imitate the observed behaviour but only if the observed behaviour is seen to be rewarded / rewarding (the learner observes and takes note of both the observed behaviour and the consequence of the behaviour).

Question 19

What is the role of Cognitive mediational processes in the Social learning theory

Answer 19

It focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are invovled in learning. These mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine wether a new resposne is acquired. Four mental or mediaitonal processes in learning thery:

1. Attention: the extent to which we notice (are paying attention) certain behaviours
2. Retention: how well behaviour is / can be remembered
3. Reproduction: the ability of an observer to perform the behaviour
4. Motivation: whether a person is motivated to perform the observed behaviour (influenced by whether they observe the behaviour being rewarded or punished).

Question 20

How does the identification play a role of Social Learning Theory

Answer 20

People are more likely to imitate models with whom they identify, what we call role models. This process is called modelling.
Bandura’s research demonstrated that models who are most likely to be imitated will be:
- same sex
- similar age to the observer
- likeable/respected
- high status (powerful)

Question 21

Outline the Bobo Doll Studies in the Social learning theory

Answer 21

Bandura et al. (1961) recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in a agressive way towards a Bobo doll.

Children watched either:
* An adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll
* An adult behaving non- aggressively towards a Bobo doll.

Findings
When given their own doll to play with, the children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive towards the doll.

Bandura and Walters (1963) showed videos to children where and adults behaved agressibel towards the Bobo doll. One group of children saw the adult prasied for their behaviour. A second group saw the adult punsihed for the agresison towards the dolll, by being told off. The third (control group) saw the aggression without any consequence). When given their own Bobo doll to play with, the first group showed much more aggression, followed by the third group, and then the second

Question 22

Evaluate the Learning’s social learning theory

Answer 22

One strength of the social learning theory approach is that it recognises the importance of cogntive factors in learning. Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgments about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. This suggest that SLT provides a more compressive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes

One limitation of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies. Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young children’s behaviour in the lab. Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics. It has been suggested, that because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a we that they thought was expected/ This suggest that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Another strength is that SLT principles have been applied to a range of real-world behaviours. Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles can account for how children learn from other around them, and this can explain how social/ cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This ahs proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role. This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world behaviour

Question 23

Outline the assumptions about the Cogntive approach

Answer 23

The cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically. As a result, the cognitive approach has investigated those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists, such as memory, perception and thinking. These processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so cogntive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on

Question 24

Outline the role of schema in the cognitive approach

Answer 24

Schema is defined as a cognitive processing is affected by a person’s beliefs/expectations

Schemas are developed through experiences, and they act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming, new sensory information.

Babies are born with simple motor schema. As we get older, schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated.

• Good schema - process lots of information quickly, like a cognitive shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
• Bad schema - distort our interpretation (and memory) of information

Question 25

Outline the theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach

Answer 25

It can be used to explain and make inferences about human behaviour and internal mental processes

One influential model is the information processing approach, which argues that information flows through cognitive systems in stages:
* Input - Environmental via senses and encoded by the person
* Processing - Encoded information is processed (e.g. schema)
* Output - The behavioural response

Computational models have proved useful in developing things such as artificial intelligence machines.

Question 26

Outline the emergence of cogntive neuroscience

Answer 26

Cognitive neuroscience aims to relate: mental processes (cognition) to brain structures (neuro). It involves mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions.

Paul Broca has identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe known as the Broca’s Area could permanently impair speech production

Neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI and pet scans which allow psychologists to observe the neurological basis of mental processes. For example, in research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory.

Buckner and Petersen were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite side of the prefrontal cortex. As well as this, the system in overall charge of working memory - the central executive- is thought to reside in a similar area.

Question 27

Evaluate the Cognitive approach

Answer 27

Laboratory experiments: These are the preferred method of investigation of the cognitive approach i.e. Loftus and Palmer (1974) – Car Crash Study. In these experiments, the extraneous variables are tightly controlled so they can be replicated, but they lack ecological validity as they take place in artificial environments, and the tasks are also artificial.

One strength of this approach is that it has real life case studies. These are used to study rare conditions which provide insight into the working of some mental processes, For example, Clive Wearing, HM. Although case studies deal with a very small sample so the results cannot be generalized to the wider population as they are influenced by individual characteristics, they allow us to study cases that could not be produced experimentally because of ethical and practical reasons.

One limitation of the cogntive approach is that it is based on machine reductionism. There are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a ‘thinking machine’ such as a computer (inputs, and outputs, storage systems, use of a central processor). However, the computer analogy has been criticised. Such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation of the cogntive system. This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach

Question 28

Outline the assumptions of the Biological approach

Answer 28

The biological approach suggests that behaviour has a biological basis. The approach believes that every psychological behaviour is at first biological and we must look at biological structures and processes

This includes considering: genes, neurochemistry, neurological functioning, the nervous system

An understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour which is contrasting to the contrasting with the cognitive approach.

Question 29

Outlien the gentic basis of behaviour in the Biological approach

Answer 29

Heredity concentrates on what we inherit from our parents whereas genetics is less interested in inheritance and more in how genes determine the physical and psychological characteristics of a person.

Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis. This is achieved by analysing concordance rates- the extent to which twins share the same characteristic. If a characteristic is genetic we should expect all identical (Monozygotic) twins to be concordant. Whereas the same would not be true for non identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes

Question 30

Outline the neurochemical basis of behaviour

Answer 30

Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain. Much of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain. This occurs using neurotransmitters.

An imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder, for example low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD and overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia

Question 31

Outline the genotype and phenotype of the biological approach

Answer 31

The genotype of a person is their actual genetic makeup. Each person (except for identical twins) has a unique genotype.

The phenotype is the expression of a person’s genetic make-up and their observable characteristics: eye colour, weight. May change at different times as a result of environmental influences.

For example PKU which results from a double recessive gene which can cause severe learning difficulties. If not diagnosed at birth can cause brain damage and intellectual impairment. If the baby is on a special diet, free of this amine, it will grow and develop normal

Question 32

Outline the role of evolution in the biological approach

Answer 32

Evolution - Darwin’s theory of natural selection suggests that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s chances of survival and/or reproduction will be selected and continue in future generations.

In nature, this selection process occurs naturally because the traits are passed on to give the possessor certain advantages (due to the traits, they are more likely to survive and reproduce, and therefore will pass on the trait to the next generation through their genes).

Question 33

Evaluate the biological approach

Answer 33

One strength of the biological approach is that it has real-world application. Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders. For example, the biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant dugs that increase levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain. Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms. This means that people with depression may be better able to manage their condition and live their lives in the community, rather than remain in hospital

Another strength of the approach is that it uses scientific methods of investigation. In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach makes use of a range or precise and highly objective methods. These include scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs. With advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure psychological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. This means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data

One limitation of the biological approach is that it is determinist. The biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control. However an individuals genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the environment. Not even identical twins who share the same genes look the same and think the same. Also, a purely genetic argument becomes problematic when we consider things such as crime. This suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment

Question 34

Briefly outline the Psychodynamic approach

Answer 34

Freud argues that our mind is split up into different sections and all influence behaviour
- The conscious mind
- The preconscious mind
- The unconscious mind

Question 35

What is the role of the unconscious

Answer 35

Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious, and the aspects in here have a major influence on our behaviour and personality. The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed. These are be accessed during dreams (what Freud referred to as parapraxes.

Just bubbling under the surface of our consicous mind is the preconsicous whiich contains thought and memories which are not currently in scousious awarness but we can acess is desired

Question 36

Outline the structure of the personality of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 36

Id - (Developed from birth)
* It operates on the pleasure principle and it is a seething mass of unconscious drives and instinct
* Throughout life the ID is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of tis needs

Ego - (Develops age 2)
* The ego works on the reality principle and is a mediator between the two other personality parts
* Its role is to reduce the conflict between the id’s demands and the superego
* It manages this by employing several defence mechanisms

Superego (Develops at the end of the phallic stage, age 5)
* Based on the morality principle and it is our internalised sense of right and wrong
* Represents the moral standards of the child’s same-sex parent and punishes the ego for wrongdoing (through guilt)

Question 37

Outline the 5 Psychosexual stages of adult personality development

Answer 37

Any psychosexual conflict that is left unresolved (which may be caused by a person receiving to much or not enough gratification at a stage) leads to fixation

Oral - 0-1 years, Focus on pleasure = mouth, Feeding and weaning are central to this stage

Anal - 1-3 years, Focus on pleasure= anus, Toilet training is central to this stage

Phallic - 3-5 years, focus of pleasure= genital area, Gender role and moral development are thought to occur here, through identification with the same-sex parent, child experiences the Oedipus

Complex
Latency - 5/6 years - Puberty, Psychosexual energies shift to psychical and intellectual activities so no further Psychosexual development take place, Ego and Superego continue to develop

Genital - Puberty into adulthood, Focus on pleasure = genital area, Sexual desires because conscious alongside the onset of puberty

Phallic Stage - Boys - Incestuous feelings towards their mother, Murderous hatred toward their father, Belief of the father castrating them (castration anxiety)

The Electra Complex- Girls - Girls desire their father and his penis. Form a hatred of their mother, Represses the hatred for their mother and instead identifies with them, taking on their gender role

Question 38

Outlien the Defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 38

These are unconsicous and ensure that the Ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas. However, they often involve some form of distorition of reality and as a long-term solution they are regarded as psychologically unhealthy and undesirable

Repression- Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
Denial - refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
Displacement - transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a subsitute target

Question 39

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

Answer 39

One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it introduced the idea of psychotherapy. Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy- psychoanalysis. This was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions from their conscious mind they can be dealt with. Psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modem ‘talking therapies’, such as counselling. This shows that the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment

Another strength of Freud’s theory is its ability to explain human behaviour. Freud’s theory is controversial in many ways, but it has nevertheless has a huge influence on psychology and contemporary thought. The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the gender identity. The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents, and our later development. This suggests the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact of psychology

One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that much of it is untestable/ The philosopher of science Karl Popper agued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification. It is not open to empirical testing. Many of Freud’s concepts (such as the ID and the Oedipus complex) are said to test. This suggests that Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific rather than established fact

Question 40

Outline Free Will in the humanisitic psychology

Answer 40

The Humanistic psychology claiming that human beings are essentially self-determining and have free will.
People are still affected by external and internal influences, but are also active agents who can determine their own development.

Person centred approach- Humanistic psychologists such as Rogers and Maslow, reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour. As active agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general law.

Question 41

Outline Abram Maslow ideas on the Humanistic approach

Answer 41

Self-actualisation- Everyone has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential to become all they can be. Personal growth is essential to what makes us human and is concerned with a person developing and changing to become fulfilled, satisfied, and goal-orientated.

The Hierarchy of Needs
All lower levels in there order must be satisfied before an individual can work towards self-actualisation.
* Physiological - Food, water, breathing, sleep, sex
* Safety - Security, the family, stability, freedom from fear
* Love & Belonging- Friendship, intimate relationship, love for others
* Self-esteem - Self-respect, status, perception of competence
* Self-actualization - Flourishing, Creativity, Morality

(Bottom to top)

Question 42

Outline Karl Rodgers ideas on the Humanistic approach

Answer 42

Rogers argues that for personal growth to be achieved, a person must have their two selves aligned:
- Self-concept - the way they see themselves, their ‘real’ self
- Ideal self - the person they want to be

If too big a gap exists between a person’s self-concept and ideal self, there is what Rogers terms a state of incongruence.
This will cause negative feelings of self-worth and prevent a person from achieving self-actualisation.

In order to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self, rogers developed client-centered therapy - also called ‘counselling’ to help people cope with the problems of everyday living. Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as adults, such as worthlessness and low self-esteem, have their roots in childhood and can often be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard form our parents

Question 43

Evaluate the Humanistic approach

Answer 43

One strength of the humanistic approach is that it It emphasises choice. According to humanistic psychology people have free will and are ultimately responsible for their behaviour. This is the notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces. This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but that humans are active agents who have the ability to determine their own development. This is largely ignored by other approaches.

Another strength of the humanistic approach is that It considers subjective conscious experience. This approach focuses on the whole person in their environmental context. Within CCT the individual’s conditions of worth and level of congruence are explored. According to the humanistic approach, psychology should study the individual case (idiographic approach) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic.) Therefore this approach accounts for individual differences.

One limitation of the approach is that approach does not account for cultural differences. Not all cultures share the assumption that individual achievement brings fulfilment. This concept is specific to individualist cultures. Other cultures are collectivist, which means that fulfilment is derived from acting in the best interests of the community within which they live.
Therefore, this approach is limited in its application.

Question 44

Outline Free will vs Determinism in comparisons of approaches

Answer 44

Free will vs determinism
Free will: the idea that what we do is voluntary and done through choice. We make our own decisions and choose our own course of action.
Determinism: where an individual’s behaviour, choices and thought are determined by internal or external factors.

Question 45

Outline Nature vs Nurture in comparisons of approaches

Answer 45

Nature vs nurture
An assessment of the extent to which behaviour is the result of innate biological factors (nature) or environmental learning experiences (nurture)

Question 46

Outline Holism vs reductionism in comparisons of approaches

Answer 46

Holism vs reductionism
Holism: a viewpoint that sees behaviour as best understood rather than being the sum of its constituent parts
Reductionism: a viewpoint that sees behaviour as best understood by reducing it down to its constituent parts

Question 47

Outline Views on Development in comparisons of approaches

Answer 47

Views on Development- Looking at how thinking, feeling, and behaviour change throughout the course of a person’s life

Question 48

Outline Treatment in abnormal behaviour in comparisons of approaches

Answer 48

Treatment of Abnormal Behaviour - Focus on psychopathology and abnormal/negative behaviour

Question 49

Outline Idiographic vs nomothetic in comparisons of approaches

Answer 49

Idiographic approach: a means of understanding mind and behaviour through focus upon the individual, with emphasis on the unique personal experience of human nature

Nomothetic approach: a scientific means of understanding mind and behaviour that seeks to establish universal laws common to all individuals

Question 50

Outline Scientific methods in comparisons of approaches

Answer 50

Scientific Methods
Forms of research investigation that use standardised ways of making observations, in order to test predictions through objective, unbiased forms of analysis

Question 51

Outline Extrapolation in comparisons of approaches

Answer 51

Extrapolation
The belief that generalisation of findings from animal to human populations is possible due to their common physiologies