Paper 2- Research methods

Question 1

Define Aim

Answer 1

A precise statement of why a study is taking place. This should contain what is being studied and what the study is expected to achieve

Question 2

Define a hypothesis

Answer 2

A hypothesis is a precise and testable statement that predicts what will happen in the study being conducted.

Question 3

Define an experimental hypothesis

Answer 3

An experimental hypothesis is a hypothesis used in the context of an experiment which predicts a difference or expected relationship between two variables will be seen in the research findings

Question 4

Define a null hypothesis and give an example

Answer 4

A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that states there will be no difference or no relationship between the variables being investigated.
‘There will be no difference in the number of digits recalled by participants who read digits aloud compared to participants who read digits sub-vocally’

Question 5

Define a Directional hypothesis and give an example

Answer 5

A directional hypothesis specifically predicts the direction to the results, this is used when there is previous research
‘Participants who read digits aloud will recall a greater number of digits compared to participants who read digits sub-vocally’

Question 6

Define a Non directional hypothesis and give an example

Answer 6

A non-directional hypothesis states that there will be a difference or relationship between variables but it does not indicate the direction of the results
‘There will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by participants in the reading aloud condition compared to participants in the sub vocal audition

Question 7

Define an independent variable (IV)

Answer 7

This is the thing which is manipulated in an experiment and which is assumed to have a direct affect on the dependent variable

Question 8

Define a dependent variable (DV)

Answer 8

This is the variable which the researcher measures which is thought to be affected by the independent variable

Question 9

Define what an extraneous variable

Answer 9

This is a general term for anything other than the IV which may have an effect on the DV. Uncontrolled extraneous variables may affect the reliability and validity of a study. Where possible, extraneous variables are controlled as this allows us to imply or infer cause and effect

Question 10

Define an confounding variables

Answer 10

Confounding variables do change systemically with the IV 9e..g personality or natural ability of participants may have a direct influence on what are testing

Question 11

Define a demand characteristics as an extraneous variables

Answer 11

Participants are likely to spend a lo to their time during research trying to figure out the new situation they are in. Demand characteristics are any uses from the research that may eb interpreted by the participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. These may lead lead to participant reactivity for e.g.
the ‘halo/please-you effect’ - where participants act in the way they believe the researchers wants
the ‘screw you effect’ where the participants behaves in a way to deliberately sabotage the research

Question 12

Define an investigator effects as an extraneous variables

Answer 12

These refer to any effect of the investigator’s behaviour that may influence the participants or the outcome of the researcher. Normally , investigator effect give away the aims of the study, and therefore may lead to the ‘please-you’ and the ‘screw-you’ effects

Question 13

How can extraneous variables be controlled?

Answer 13

1. Randomisation refers to the use of chance wherever possible to reduce the effects of bias e.g. when designing materials or allocating participants to the different conditions
2. Standardisation refers to the fact, as far ass possible, all participants should be subject to the same formal research environment. Instructions and procedures should be the same for everyone. Standardisation helps to control for extraneous and confounding variables, demand characters and investigator effects
3. Employ a single bind procedure. In a single blind procedure, the participant has no awareness of what is going on indifferent conditions.
4. Employ a double bind procedure. In a double blind procedure, neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of the research aim or the different conditions

Question 14

what are the four main types of experiment

Answer 14

Laboratory
Field
Natural
Quasi

Question 15

Outline a Laboratory experiment

Answer 15

An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment where extraneous variables can be controlled and cause and effect can be applied
The researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) and measures a dependent variable (DV). Extraneous variables are controlled as much as possible and the experimental environment is standardised for everyone.

Question 16

Evaluate Strengths and weakness of a Laboratory experiment

Answer 16

Positive - High internal validity because of the high levels of control and (normally) the random allocation of participants to each condition. In a Lab Experiment researchers have a high level of control over both the I.V and D.V and extraneous variables. Due to the random allocation of participants, participant variables are normally often controlled. This means we can imply cause and effect and can be sure that the change in the D.V is a direct effect of the I.V manipulation and not due to extraneous variables.

Positive - High reliability. Due to the high levels of control and standardisation, a lab experiment can be replicated exactly in the future. This means results can be verified in the future and reliability can be easily assessed.

Negative- Lab experiments are often artificial and lack ecological validity. This means that just because someone behaves in a particular way in an experiment it does not mean they will behave the same way in ‘real life’.
Negative - Demand characteristics and investigator effects are an issue. Due to the artificial nature, participants are often influenced by demand characteristics (real or imagined) and investigator effects. This means participants behaviour in the study is not likely to represent their natural behaviour. instead it will be

Question 17

Outline a Field experiments

Answer 17

An experiment conducted in a natural environment and it can be applied to day to day life. The investigator can be manipulate the independent variable
The researcher still manipulates an independent variable and measures a dependent variable. However, the manipulation of the I.V is often done in a more natural way compared to in a Lab Experiment.
However, the researcher has less control over extraneous variables in a field experiment. Also, the research environment may NOT be standardized (kept the same) for all participants.

Question 18

Evaluate Strengths and weakness of a Field experiment

Answer 18

Positive- Demand characteristics less of an issue and there is higher mundane realism. Due to the more natural environment of field experiments, participants are less aware that they are in an experiment so will be less likely to change their behaviour in response to demand characteristics This means the participants behaviour in the study is likely to represent their natural behaviour.
This also means Ecological validity is higher as it is likely that participants’ behaviour is more reflective of real life.

Negative- Issues with Internal validity. Due to the lower control in Field Experiments, extraneous variables are often not controlled and may therefore influence the D.V. This means it is more difficult to imply cause and effect and say conclusively that a D.V change is a direct effect of an I.V manipulation.
Negative- Low Reliability and difficult to replicate. As field experiments are conducted in a less controlled environment, they are often not as standardised. This makes it difficult to replicate the study exactly in the future.

Question 19

Outline a natural experiment

Answer 19

An experiment where the experimenter cannot manipulate the independent variable therefore the dependent variable can be measured and can be judged as an effect of the IV
The researcher still measures a dependent variable but……the big difference is that the researcher does not manipulate the independent variables. This is done for them by a naturally occurring event (it is called a natural experiment because the I.V would have changed naturally even if the study was not taking place).
In addition, it is unlikely hat participants are randomly allocated across the different conditions. If possible, participants will be matched across conditions.

Question 20

Evaluate Strengths and weakness of a natural experiment

Answer 20

Positive- The highest level of ecological and external validity. Natural experiments involve the study of real life issues as they happen This means results are very likely to reflect natural behaviour and therefore conclusions can be generalised beyond the research situation to other, real life situations

Positive- An Ethical way to investigate aspects that cannot be directly tested. Natural Experiments provide the opportunity to research aspects that would not be possible to study using other methods due to practical and/or ethical reasons. This method therefore increases the scope of acceptable psychological investigations.

Negative- Rare and very difficult to replicate (low reliability). Low population Validity. A naturally occurring event normally happens rarely, reducing the opportunities for research. This means we cannot verify findings and generalisation of results very difficult as we cannot be sure different people would behave in the same way.
Negative- Very low internal validity. It is often very difficult to control extraneous variables in natural experiments. This makes it very difficult to establish conclusive cause and effect so we cannot be sure the I.V has directly affected the D.V.

Question 21

Outline a Quasi experiment

Answer 21

An experiment where a type of research method that uses a pre-existing naturally occurring IV to study the effect of a difference between people on the DV.
Participants are often NOT RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO CONDITIONS, rather participants are MATCHED across conditions (e.g. in terms of age, etc) if at all possible. In a QUASI EXPERIMENT there is NO CONTROL CONDITION; rather there is a comparison condition.

Question 22

What is a sample?

Answer 22

A sample is drawn from a target population and should be representative of that population.

Question 23

What is a target population?

Answer 23

A Target Population is a SUBSET of the general population and is the particular group of people who you are interested in studying. If a sample is representative, we can then GENERALISE the results to the entire target population.

Question 24

Outline give and example and evaluate a random sampling technique

Answer 24

A random sample is a sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. For example sample collected using a lottery method.

A strength of random sampling is that it is potentially unbiased . this means that confounding or extraneous variables should be equally divide between different groups

A weakness of random sampling is that it is difficult and often time consuming

Question 25

Outline give and example and evaluate a systematic sampling technique

Answer 25

Systematic sampling is when the nth member of the target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced which is a list of people in the target population organised. An example is every 3rd house on a street

A strength of systematic sampling is that it is objective and once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen

A weakness of systematic sampling is that it is time consuming and that participants may refuse to take part resulting in a volunteer sample

Question 26

Outline give and example and evaluate a stratified sample technique

Answer 26

It is a sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportion of people in certain subgroups with the target population to a wider population. An example is someone randomly being selected from a subgroup.

A strength of stratified sampling is that because it is designed to accurately reflect the composition of population the findings can be generalised

A weakness is that designing and implementing a stratified sampling plan can be more complex and time-consuming than a simple random sampling

Question 27

Outline give and example and evaluate a opportunity sample technique

Answer 27

Many researchers simply decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available. An example is a sample taking in the street

A strength of opportunity sample is that it is coinvent, this method is much less costly in terms of time and money target population is not required

A weakness of opportunity sample is that it can suffer from researcher bias which may affect the validity of the results

Question 28

Outline give and example and evaluate volunteer sample technique

Answer 28

It is that participant selecting themselves ton be a part of a sample through self selection. For example putting a advert in a newspaper.

A strength of the volunteer sample is that is is easy and requires minimal input and is less time consuming.

A weakness of the volunteer sample is that it could lead to volunteer bias which may attract certain people make the results less generalisable

Question 29

Outline, evaluate and list how to control a Repeated measures design

Answer 29

It is when some participants take part in all conditions of an experiment. The order of conditions should be counterbalanced to avoided order effects.

The advantages of this design is that Participants variable are CONTROLLED. This is an advantage because we can be sure that any difference found between the groups is a result of the IV manipulation and not differences between participants. Repeated measures design also more economical.

A weakness is that there will be ORDER EFFECTS can occur (e.g. participant performance can be affected by things like boredom, fatigue. Order effects are a confounding variable and mean we cannot be sure that any difference between conditions is a result of the IV

This can be controlled through counterbalancing which involves an attempt to control for the effects in a repeated measured design half the participants will experience one conditions in one order and the others in another order

Question 30

Outline, evaluate and list how to control a independent measures design

Answer 30

It is one group does condition A and and the second does condition B. Participants should be randomly allocated to an experimental group

The advantages of this design is that ORDER EFFECTS are not a problem because participants are only exposed to one condition. This is an advantage because this might lead to a better performance through practice, or worse performance due to boredom or fatigue. Participants will not guess aim of the experiment

A weakness of this design is that PARTICIPANT VARIABLES (individual differences) are likely to be an issue. This is because the participants in the two forums are different. Aweil as the independent groups are also less economical because it needs twice as many participants as repeated measure for same data

This can be controlled through random allocation of participants which is an attempt to control for participant variables in a independent groups design which ensures that each participants as the same chance of being in one condition to any other

Question 31

Outline, evaluate and list how to control a matched pairs design

Answer 31

An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched in term so key variables such as Age or IQ. An then separated into different conditions

An advantage of this design is that since participants experience one condition there are order effects this by controlling the order effects researching control their potential, Reduce influence on demand characteristics

A weakness of this design is that there is financial infliction that otehr experimental design because it requires more participants.

The best way to employ a matched pairs design is to use monozygotic (identical) twins and use each twin in a different condition. This provides researchers with a very close match for participant variables. However, this is often impractical.

Question 32

What is a pilot study?

Answer 32

A Pilot study is a small scale, trail run of the research. It will use only a handful of participants, not the entire sample. By doing a pilot study, researchers can save time and money in the long run!

Question 33

What are the aims of a pilot study

Answer 33

Conducting a pilot study allows the research to uncover any potential problems with their design before the research actually takes place. A pilot study could be used to

• Check participants understand the instructions they are given by psychologists
• Identify any unforeseen difficulties, ethical issues, extraneous variables relating to the design of the study.
• Test the reliability of data collection tools
• Check any materials being used are appropriate (e.g. checking that participants understand questions in questionnaires, checking that questions are not leading or ambiguous).
• Checking that other researchers understand how to use CODING SYSTEMS or BEHAVIOURAL CATEGORIES if conducting an observation.

Question 34

Describe and evaluate a naturalistic observation

Answer 34

The psychologist observes naturally occurring behaviour and does not manipulate the environment in any way

An advantage of this observations is that the Behaviour of participants is more likely to be natural and less likely to be influenced by demand characteristics. The research will have high mundane realism and ecological and external validity as the situation is naturally occurring

A disadvantage of this observation is that there is a lack of control over extraneous variables so internal validity will be lower. This also means replication will be difficult

Question 35

Describe and evaluate a controlled observation

Answer 35

The psychologist observes behaviour in a carefully controlled environment which they have set up themselves

An advantage of this observation is that there are high levels of control over extraneous variables which makes cause and effect easier to imply and makes replication easier

An disadvantage of this observation is that the behaviour of participants may be unnatural due to demand characteristics and the observation may lack mundane realism and ecological validity due to the unnatural nature of the situation (i.e. the results may not generalise to situations beyond the one being observed).

Question 36

Describe and evaluate a covert observation

Answer 36

Here the psychologist joins in with the group or takes part in the situation they are observing

An advantage of this observation is that The psychologist can establish a closer relationship with the participants and may gain an increased insight into the people / aspect being observed, which may yield more detailed results

A disadvantage of an observation is observer effects which is The presence of the observer may lead to unnatural behaviour in the participants. The researcher may become emotionally involved and therefore may be biased and not objective. Observers will have to rely on memory (as they will not record the behaviour until after the observation) which is unreliable

Question 37

Describe and evaluate an overt observation

Answer 37

Here the psychologist simply observes from a distance and does not participate in the observation in any way. However, the participants should know they are being observed and should have given their informed consent

An advantage of this observation is that the observer may be more objective as they are less likely to become emotionally involved with the participants. Recordings are more reliable as they are taken during the observation instead of relying on memory of the event

A disadvantage of this observation is that there are a psychologist may have a less detailed understanding of the behaviour as they are on the outside of the situation and have no emotional connection with participants

Question 38

Describe and evaluate an participation observation

Answer 38

During this type of observation, participants are made aware that they are being observed and have given full informed consent beforehand.

An advantage of this observation is that it has Fewer ethical issues as participants are aware they are being observed.

A disadvantage of this observation is that there is a observer effect which is Telling a participant they are being observed may lead to demand characteristics and unnatural behaviour (e.g. the ‘Halo / please-you’ effect; the ‘screw you’ effect) meaning results may not be reflective of real life.

Question 39

Describe and evaluate a non participation observation

Answer 39

During this type of observation, participants are unaware that they are being observed. Behaviour is observed ‘in secret’

An advantage of this observation is that Fewer demand characteristics (e.g. no observer effects) as participants are not aware they are being observed. This should lead to more natural and valid behaviour.

An disadvantage of this observation is Ethical issues are raised such as there is a possible lack of informed consent and deception. NB. This type of observation should only therefore be conducted in a situation where the participant would normally expect to be observed.

Question 40

Outline and give an advantage of an observational design

Answer 40

Behavioural categories are used when a target behaviour is broken up into components that are easier to measure and observe. These behavioural categories should be precisely defined in as much detail as possible (i.e. they should be fully operationalised).

An advantage of the use of behaviour categories is that it makes data collection more structured and objective. It also means that QUANTITATIVE DATA is gathered, which can be easily compared and objectively analysed using statistical methods. In addition, they mean observer bias is less of an issue as the observer knows exactly the behaviour they are looking for (the categories should not require further interpretation)

Question 41

Outline and give an advantage of an observational sampling methods - event sampling

Answer 41

This involves establishing the target behaviours and then recording EVERY TIME the behaviour (‘event’) occurs during the observation

EVENT SAMPLING is useful when the target behaviour happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling is employed.
However, if the behaviour is COMPLEX, the observer may overlook certain behaviours if using event sampling, therefore it may be influenced by OBSERVER BIAS

Question 42

Outline and give an advantage of a time sampling observational sampling method

Answer 42

This involves establishing the target behaviour but only recording the behaviour in a FIXED, PRE-ESTABLISHED TIME FRAME. The observations are then recorded chronologically.

TIME SAMPLING is advantageous as it reduces the number of observations that need to be made.
However, a weakness is that it may lead to UNREPRESENTATIVE RESULTS as the instances when behaviour is sampled may not reflect the observation as a whole.

Question 43

Outline and evaluate a content analysis

Answer 43

This is an indirect form of observation as you are observing people through the artefacts they produce. It is however, carried out in a systematic way and is carried out by analysing media, newspapers, books, TV, propaganda, songs. An example would be studying gender role stereotypes in books.

Strengths-a psychologist can study groups that are difficult to access, there are few ethical issues and this method has high ecological validity as it is based on observations of what people actually do.

Limitations-Behaviour/actions can be misinterpreted so the results may be subject to observer bias.

Question 44

Outline a thematic analysis

Answer 44

This is a lengthy and painstaking process used when analysing qualitative data. Themes or categories are identified, and data is organised according to these themes. So, unlike content analysis the research does not have any preconceived ideas about what they expect to find. Instead they look for emerging themes. An example would be a research wanting to find out why people engaged in certain behaviours, interviews would be recorded and then transcribed. The researcher would go through the transcribes and look for any themes that emerged.

Question 45

Define a self-report technique

Answer 45

A self-report technique is any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their feelings, opinions behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic.
We will be examining the following methods of self-report:
Questionnaires and interviews, which can be structured and unstructured.

Question 46

Outline a questionaries

Answer 46

Questionnaires involves asking a large sample of people for information on a specific topic.
Respondents will answer a set of pre-determined questions constructed by researchers, these are usually about opinions, attitudes or behavior. They are normally completed using written questionnaires and can be distributed in various ways, such as face to face or in the post.

Question 47

Outline and evaluate open questions

Answer 47

it involves participants giving their own responses; they do not select from fixed choice answers. Open questions generate qualitative data. E.g. What do you think of Psychology?

An advantage of open questions is that they provide detailed qualitative data that is personal to the respondent.

However a weakness is that answers are harder to analyse due to the qualitative nature of the response. In addition, any analysis may be influenced by researcher bias.

Question 48

Outline and evaluate closed questions

Answer 48

it involves participants selecting from a range of fixed responses. Closed questions generate quantitative data.
An advantage of closed questions is that they can be analysed used objective statistical methods, as they generate quantitative data.

However, a weakness is that they may not provide natural realistic responses as people may not fit into the fixed responses; this leads to response bias, which does not reflect natural behaviour.

Question 49

Define a Likert scale as a type of closed questions

Answer 49

A Likert scale is where a respondent indicates their agreement (or otherwise) with a statement using a scale, often of 5 points, or ranging from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’.

Question 50

Define a Rating scale as a type of closed questions

Answer 50

A rating scale works in a similar way but gets respondents to identify a VALUE that represents their strength of feeling about a particular topic.

Question 51

Evaluate the use of questionnaire

Answer 51

☑ One strength is that questionnaires are an ECONOMICAL and EFFICIENT way to collect data. This is because large numbers of questionnaires can be distributed easily, making it a cost-effective method.In addition, the questionnaire can be completed without the researcher being present, which reduces the effort involved. They can produce both quantitative (numbers) and qualitative (in-depth) responses. Closed questions produce quantitative and open questions produce qualitative data. (We will return to these concepts later. Therefore researchers can generate and analyse a large amount of data very easily.
☑ Questionnaires have HIGH LEVELS of REPLICABILITY. Questionnaires are easy to replicate as they use standardised questions - this is truer of closed questions.

Limitations of a field experiment:
🗵 However a weakness with questionnaires is that answers may LACK VALIDITY and are INFLUENCED BY SOCIAL DESIRABILITY. Even though a questionnaire may be anonymous, participants may still be influenced by social desirability (a type of DEMAND CHARACTERISTIC). This means the answers they give may not reflect natural behaviour and thoughts and may instead be simply what the participant thinks is the acceptable or correct answer. So we have to be careful when considering the validity of information gathered from questionnaires.

🗵 A further weakness is that there are issues with the POPULATION VALIDITY of people who return questionnaires (particularly postal questionnaires). The sample may be BIASED because only certain types of people will complete and return questionnaires. These people may not reflect the general population. In addition, questionnaires have low response rates and they may not be suitable for sensitive issues. Therefore data gathered from questionnaires may not generalise to the population at large.

Question 52

Outline a structured interviews

Answer 52

These involve the use of PRE-DETERMINED questions that are asked in a FIXED ORDER. Basically this is like a questionnaire but conducted face-to-face in real time. The interview asks the question and waits for an answer before moving onto the next question. This type of interview reduces the influence of researcher bias but may lead to limited, basic responses and therefore poor data which is not detailed and tells us very little. They are however much easier to analyse and are therefore less time consuming as researchers do not need to sift through irrelevant information.

Question 53

Outline a unstructured interviews

Answer 53

This works a lot like a conversation. There are no set questions. There is a general pre-determined aim for the interview, but the interaction will be free flowing. The interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers, with some prompting by the interviewer.

This type of interview may increase the detail, richness and depth of the information gained, but it may be influenced by researcher bias (i.e. the researcher may only choose to explore certain aspects). In addition, unstructured interviews are often difficult to analyse as researchers often need to sift through lots of irrelevant information.

Question 54

Outline a semi-structured interviews

Answer 54

Many interviews often take this approach. Here, there may be a list of pre-determined questions but the interviewer is free to ask any additional, follow up questions and explore any answers in greater depth, should they feel that this is appropriate and worthwhile.

This type of interview strikes a good balance between gaining rich, meaningful data and eliminating possible researcher bias.

Question 55

Evaluate Interviews

Answer 55

One important WEAKNESS to note is that interviews may still be influenced by SOCIAL DESIRABILITY, perhaps more so than questionnaires. Participants may feel PRESSURED (due to the face-to-face nature of the interview) to give certain answers. In addition, they may NOT FEEL COMFORTABLE discussing certain aspects in a face-to-face way, which may lead to data that is incomplete.
As well as this, the interviewer may give unintentional cues that means the responded answers in a particular way. Unstructured interviews need skill to carry out, especially when the interview is of a sensitive nature. Finally, the suitability of the respondent needs to be considered, some respondents may have difficulties in expressing their answers.

HOWEVER, a STRENGTH is that Interviews are more suited for sensitive/complex issues as the pps are made to feel more relaxed and are therefore more willing to talk (particularly true of unstructured interviews). The researcher is present so misunderstandings can be addressed.

Question 56

What is the difference between a correlation and experiment?

Answer 56

A correlation differs from an experiment, this is because an experiment looks for a difference between the 2 conditions of an IV, whereas a correlation looks for a relationship between co-variables.
Correlations are a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association (‘relationship’) between two variables (‘CO-VARIABLES’). Correlations are plotted on a SCATTERGRAM, with one co-variable on the X Axis and one co-variable on the Y Axis. Each point (dot) on a scattergram indicates an individual piece of data. A scattergram can indicate the strength of relationship between co-variables.
In addition, the strength of relationship can be indicated more clearly by working out the correlation coefficient.

Question 57

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 57

This is a numerical representation of the strength and direction of relationship.
The sign of the coefficient (- or +) indicates the direction of the relationship and the number indicates the strength of the relationship.
A correlation coefficient can range from -1.0 (a perfect negative correlation) to +1.0 (a perfect positive correlation). 0 would indicate no relationship. The closer the number is to -1 or +1, the stronger the relationship.
The letter r is often used to indicate the correlation coefficient.
The graphs on the right visually demonstrate different correlation coefficients.

Question 58

Outline the three types of correlation

Answer 58

There are THREE types of correlations which indicate the STRENGTH (or lack of) association (relationship) between the co-variables;
POSITIVE CORRELATION
This is when one co-variable increases, so does the other. A perfect positive correlation would have a correlation coefficient of +!.

NEGATIVE CORRELATION
This is when one co-variable increases but the other de creases. A perfect negative correlation would have a coefficient of -1

ZERO CORRELATION
This is when there is NO relationship between the co-variables. A perfect Zero correlation would have a coefficient of 0.

Question 59

Evaluate correlations

Answer 59

☑ Correlational Studies have ETHICAL ADVANTAGES
A correlational study can be conducted to analyse situations where experimentation is either impractical or unethical (e.g. to investigate the effects of child abuse). In addition, correlations do not require researchers to manipulate variables, only measure them.
This makes correlational analysis an ethical option that increases the breadth of psychological research.

☑ There are PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES as correlations allow us to make clear PREDICTIONS
Correlational analysis can allow us to demonstrate the presence or absence of a relationship between two variables in a relatively easy and quick way.
Correlations are therefore often the STARTING POINT for future research in an area which will obviously increase our understanding and knowledge.
This also means that correlational analysis can be a PREDICTIVE TOOL (e.g. it can be used to make predictions) which again has practical uses and advantages.

🗵 In a correlation we CANNOT ESTABLISH CAUSE and EFFECT only that there is a relationship between variables. There is also a THIRD VARIABLE problem
Correlations only allow us to infer relationships between two variables. They do not tell us the reasons behind these relationships or allow us to draw conclusions that one thing directly affects another.
There could be a third variable (an INTERVENING VARIABLE) which has not been identified which may be creating the observed relationship. This is known as the THIRD VARIABLE PROBLEM

Question 60

Outline Case Studies

Answer 60

A case study in psychology IN DEPTH, DETAILED study of an INDIVIDUAL, SMALL GROUP or SINGLE INSTANCE (e.g. an institution; event). Case studies tend to be LONGITUDINAL. However they often begin by researchers constructing a CASE HISTORY – a retrospective account of the client’s history.

Case studies produce RICH, DETAILED, data. This is because when Psychologists conduct a case study they will use a VARIETY OF METHODS to make the study as detailed as possible, including, interviews, observations, questionnaires and psychological testing (experiments). In a case study, the researcher may also interview / test FAMILY MEMBERS or other people close to the client.
Because of the above, a lot of the data produced in a case study will be QUALITATIVE, but there may also be some QUANTITATIVE DATA.

Question 61

Evaluate Case Studies

Answer 61

Case Studies also provide a VALID account of RICH, DETAILED DATA
Due to the range of methods used and the longitudinal nature of case studies, they provide rich, in depth, detailed data. Due to this, case studies can also show us the complex INTERACTION of factors with regards behavior.
This is often preferred to more superficial snapshots of behavior, provided by say experiments.

Case studies are an ETHICAL WAY to investigate certain aspects
Case studies allow researchers to investigate rare, sensitive aspects that would be difficult to investigate in other ways (e.g. experimentally), for example the effects of abuse and deprivation on emotional development.
This means case studies provide important data to develop our understanding in a way that is ethically acceptable and that does not cause further harm.

Limitations of Case Studies
There problems with the POPULATION VALIDITY and GENERALISABILITY of case studies. Case studies are conducted on very small samples. Because of this, we cannot say that the findings and conclusions relating to the people in a case studies will GENERALISE to other people in the wider population (e.g. the case study of HM showed us the effects of hippocampal removal on HIS memory, but we cannot be sure that the same would be seen in other people. This means we have to be cautious with the conclusions of case studies as they arguable only VALIDLY apply to the person or small group being studied.

Question 62

Outline the 7 Ethical guidelines

Answer 62

Withdrawal from investigation - Should be given the right to withdraw at each stage of the research processes
Deception - Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation
Protection of participants- participants should not be placed at any more risk than they should be in their day to day lives
Debriefing - participants should be given a debrief where are advised of the contents of the investigation
Informed consent- Not gaining full informed consent from participants
Confidentiality - participants have the right to control information about themselves
Observational research

Question 63

Outline the issue of an lack of informed consent

Answer 63

Sometimes Psychologists do not gain full informed consent from participants. This can be because of deception or if the participant is incapable of understanding the study and giving consent.

Lack of informed consent is an issue because it means the participant has not agreed to be in the study and may be taking part against their wishes.

If children or other vulnerable individuals are being used (who may not understand the nature of the study), consent should be gained from the parent or whoever is in loco parentis (responsible for the individual)

Question 64

Outline a issue of a deception

Answer 64

Deception is an issue when participants are involved in research when they do not fully understand the aims and nature of the study. Also, deception occurs when participants are unaware a study is taking place.

Deception is an issue because it prevents participants from giving full informed consent. Also, it may be an issue because participants will start to become distrustful of psychologists in the future.

Deception can be resolved by giving participants a full DEBRIEF on completion of the study where the TRUE AIM is revealed.
The debrief should also reduce distress and return the participant to the state they were in prior to the study.
Also, Prior to the study a full COST – BENEFIT analysis should be conducted by an ethics panel to see if the deception is justified.

Question 65

Outline the Issue of - protection of participants from harm

Answer 65

Participants have a right to control information about themselves (they have a right to privacy). If this right is invaded, then confidentiality should be protected – i.e. no personal details (name, date of birth, geographical locations, etc) should be shared at any point during the study or in the report.

Participants should not be able to be identified as this may lead to people attempting to contact them, which may cause anxiety, trauma or further invasions of privacy.
If the study is of a sensitive nature, people may also not want sensitive information about themselves to be released to the public as this may effect relationships, work, etc.

Any personal details held should be kept confidential and must be protected. However, it is more likely that NO PERSONAL DETAILS are used at any point – i.e. ANONYMITY SHOULD BE MAINTAINED THROUGHOUT.
To ensure this, researchers may refer to participants simply by a number or initials when writing up the study.
Finally participants must be given the RIGHT TO WITHDRAW at any point should they feel uncomfortable about confidentiality or privacy; if this happens, all data and information on the participant should be destroyed.

Question 66

How do you deal with ethical issues

Answer 66

The psychologist’s (not so) secret weapon is THE DEBRIEF. Most Ethical issues can be overcome with a thorough debrief. You may be asked to write one and so must include: The true nature of the research; The option for ppts to withdraw their data; identify any harm caused and offer support; Reminder that data remains Confidential; Thank them for taking part.

EXAMPLE OF A DE-BRIEF- “Thank you for taking part. What I was really investigating was whether more words were recalled from an organised list or a random list. You were part of a group that were given the random list, the other group were given an organised list. These results will now be compared. Can I remind you that you can withdraw your data at any time. Your name will not be used and the results will remain confidential.”

Question 67

Define reliability

Answer 67

it refers to CONSISTENCY and REPLICABILITY, i.e. whether a researcher can measure / observe something time after time and gain the same or similar results, or whether a study can be conducted in the same way on different occasions.

Question 68

Define Validity

Answer 68

It refers to ACCURACY / TRUTHFULNESS
I.e. the extent to which an observed effect is genuine; does the test measure what it is claiming to measure, can the results and conclusions be generalised beyond the research setting in which they were found?

Question 69

Outline and describe internal reliability

Answer 69

Refers to the
consistency WITHIN
a test, i.e. does the
first half of the test
generate the same
results as the
second half?

SPLIT – HALF
method- Compare the first half of a test with the
second half of a test to
check if the score for a
certain variable is consistent

Lack of consistency across
the test.

Ensure all parts of a test
which measure specific
variables are balanced
throughout the test

Question 70

Outline and describe external reliability

Answer 70

Refers to whether
the test produces
the same results
every time the test
is carried out

TEST – RETEST
method
Repeat the test with the
same/similar
participants several
times and see if scores
correlate. A high positive
correlation (+0.8
coefficient or above)
coefficient for the
replications indicates
that the test has external
reliability.
However, there must be
sufficient time between
the test and the re-test
to ensure, say, that the
ppts cannot recall their
answers, but not so long
that their attitudes,
opinions, abilities have
changed!

(a) Poorly
operationalised
items / variables
(b) Uncontrolled
extraneous
variables
(c) Unclear
instructions

(a) Ensure clear
operationalisation of all
variables, behaviour
categories, etc
(b) Ensure all EVs are
controlled (e.g. by using a
LAB EXPERIMENT)
(c) Ensure all PPTS are
given the same clear
instructions
(standardisation)
(d) Ensure questions in
questionnaires are clear
and not ambiguous
(closed questions are
often better for this)

Question 71

Outline an inter-rater reliability

Answer 71

Refers to whether
different
researchers /
observers in a study
generate the same
results and
conclusions

INTER-RATER
reliability test
Compare the scores
given by different
observers /
researchers for the
same test. A high
correlation between
scores of each rater
(+0.8 coefficient or
above) indicates high
inter-rater reliability

(a) Experimenter /
Observer BIAS
(b) Poorly
operationailised
variables and
measurement
tools (e.g.
behavioural
categories)
(c) Poor
instructions to
researchers /
poor training for
researchers

(a) Use a DOUBLE BLIND
method to eliminate the
influence of researcher /
observer bias (observer
does not know true aim of
the study)
(b) Ensure instructions for
researchers are clear and
unambiguous
(c) Ensure all variables and
measurement tools are
clearly operationalised
and that researchers are
adequately trained for the

Question 72

Outline a Peer Review

Answer 72

PEER REVIEW refers to the assessment of scientific research by specialists in the same field of study. A small group
(normally two or three) of experts (‘peers’) in the field of the research will scrutinize the research report to make
sure it is acceptable for publication. They will check;
 The research methodology and procedure, and whether this was appropriate for the area being investigated
 The accuracy of the analysis of the data (e.g. statistical tests) and the conclusions drawn (i.e. do the
conclusions match the data gained)
 Any ethical issues or considerations
Peer reviewers have four options open to them, they can either:
1. Accept it
2. Accept it, BUT, the researcher has to make certain improvements
3. Reject it, but suggest revisions and a re-submission
4. Reject it outright

Question 73

Outline how a peer review can take place

Answer 73

Single-blind review-the names of the reviewers is not released to the researcher; this means it is unbiased and free from interference from the researcher. However, there is a problem that the reviewers could delay the process and publish the work themselves.
Double-blind both reviewer and researcher are anonymous. This ensures fairness. However, it is possible that writing style could be identified.
Open-review Reviewer and researcher are known to each other, this encourages open/ honest review. However, reviewers may be too polite or fearful of more famous researchers.

Question 74

Evaluate peer review process

Answer 74

Peer review ensures that only GOOD QUALITY research is published and communicated to the public.However, there are a few problems with the peer review process;
 BIAS OF THE PEER REVIEWERS. As with any aspect, there may be the influence of personal bias with peer review. The Peer Reviewers may favour research that supports their own ideas. It is also argued that some peer reviewers look favourably on research which is conducted by REPUTABLE, PRESTIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. In addition, there may still be a bias towards MALE researchers, especially in psychology.
This is why it is crucial that peer review is conducted by MORE THAN ONE PERSON
 PUBLICATION BIAS: Some publications and peer reviews will favour ‘headline grabbing’ research and
therefore may be more inclined (biased) to publish POSITIVE RESULTS. This is sometimes referred to as the
FILE DRAWER problem (i.e. non significant research is hidden away in filing cabinets and not communicated
to the public)
 BURRYING GROUNDBREAKING RESEARCH. Some peer reviewers may be biased against research which
contradicts mainstream theories in order to maintain the STATUS QUO in a science. This is especially the case
if the peer reviewers themselves have been central to the development of the mainstream theories the
research is opposing!. Thus, it can be argued that peer review may in fact SLOW DOWN the progress of a
particular scientific discipline.
 IT’S NOT PERFECT! Even with peer review, there have been cases of fraudulent, inaccurate research being
published. This is why it is important that the peer review process is continually monitored.