Paper 3 - Issues and debates

Question 1

Define Gender bias

Answer 1

The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences.

Question 2

Define Alpha Bias

Answer 2

An alpha bias refers to theories that exaggerate the differences between males and females.

Question 3

Define Beta bias

Answer 3

A beta bias refers to theories that ignore or minimise sex differences. These theories often assume that the findings from studies using males can apply equally to females.

Question 4

Define Androcentrism

Answer 4

Theories which are centred on, or focused on males.

Question 5

Define Universality

Answer 5

When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture.

Question 6

Outline some key researchers who have been accused of gender bias

Answer 6

FREUD - His theory of Psychosexual Development, castration anxiety, penis envy, suggest women are a weaker sex and are therefore inferior to males (reflecting the patriarchal view of the Victorian era in general). In addition, Freud saw femininity as an expression of failed masculinity and that females are psychologically defined by the fact that they realize that they are not male! In addition, Freud argues that female vanity is a defence mechanism women use which is designed to make up for their sexual inferiority by focusing peoples attention on their ‘physical charms’!,

KOHLBERG - His theory of moral development which is based largely on a longitudinal study, which utilizes an entirely male sample – he argued that although his research involved all males, the developed theory of moral development was universal and applied to both males and females. This was attacked by Gilligan) – this can be argued to Androcentric as well as suffering from a Beta bias .

Question 7

Outline the evolutionary approach as its link to aplha bias

Answer 7

The evolutionary approach in psychology has also been criticised for its alpha bias. This is because this approach suggests that evolutionary processes in the development of the human species explain why men tend to be dominant, why women have a more parental investment in their offspring, and why men are more likely to commit adultery. However, society has changed considerably over recent years, and it is argued that the evolutionary perspective shouldn’t be used to justify gender differences.

Question 8

Outline an example of Alpha bias from psychology

Answer 8

For example, in his psychoanalytic approach, Freud argued that because girls do not suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they do not identify with their mothers as strongly as boys identify with their fathers, so develop weaker superegos.

Question 9

Outline the consequences of beta bias

Answer 9

The consequences are that theories devalue one gender in comparison to the other, but typically devalue
women.

Question 10

Outline an example of Beta Bias from psychology

Answer 10

Biological research is usually conducted on male animals because in females the variations in hormone levels would make the research more difficult. It is assumed
that such male-only samples wouldn’t matter because what is true for males would be true for females.

In stress research it was assumed that the fight or flight
response was universal- until Shelley Taylor and colleagues (2000) challenged this. They provided evidence that females produce a tend-and-befriend
response at times of stress which is adaptive because it ensures the survival of their offspring.

Question 11

Further outline Androcentrism in Gender bias

Answer 11

Androcentrism means being centred on, or dominated by males and can be conscious (the individual knows they are behaving this way) or unconscious. In the past most psychologists were male, and the theories they produced tended to represent a male view of the world. Hare-Mustin and Marecek (1988) argued for there being two types of gender bias: alpha and beta bias.

Question 12

Give a example of androcentrism in psychological research

Answer 12

A popular example of androcentrism is related to female PRE-MENSTRUAL SYNDROME. Some researchers suggest that the existence of PMS stereotypes female emotional responses (especially aggression) as IRRATIONAL and purely a result of hormonal changes. However, male aggression is often thought to be a RATIONAL response to external pressure (BRESCOLL and UHLMAN 2008)

Question 13

Evaluate Gender bias in psychology

Answer 13

Gender Bias has serious negative implications for psychological theory and assumptions about human behaviour. Gender bias leads to distorted representations of men and women. When research or theories favour one gender over the other, they fail to accurately capture the full range of human experiences.
For instance, if studies predominantly involve male participants, the findings may be generalized to both sexes, ignoring potential differences. When research neglects women’s experiences, it can harm them in several ways: In healthcare, Medical research biased toward male participants may lead to inadequate understanding of women’s health issues. Gender bias affects career opportunities, pay, and leadership roles for women Biased research reinforces societal norms that limit women’s choices and perpetuate inequality.

Gender bias may lead to sexism within the research process. Due to its gender bias, psychology may be responsible and guilty of supporting (and developing) a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research. Inaccurate Research Findings: Gender bias can lead researchers to overlook or misinterpret important psychological differences between genders. This can result in flawed research findings that fail to capture the true diversity and complexity of human behaviour. For example, if a study only focuses on male participants or fails to consider the unique experiences of women, the findings may not be generalizable to the broader population. This perpetuates stereotypes and reinforces gender biases, ultimately hindering the advancement of knowledge in psychology. Underrepresentation of Women in Leadership Roles: Gender bias within psychology can contribute to the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions within academic institutions, professional organizations, and clinical settings. This lack of representation not only limits the diversity of perspectives and experiences within the field but also creates barriers for women seeking career advancement. As a result, talented female psychologists may face systemic obstacles in their career progression, leading to a loss of valuable expertise and perpetuating the gender disparity within the discipline.

However, an awareness of gender bias has resulted in a greater degree of reflexibility and has had major practical and theoretical applications. An awareness of gender bias in psychology means that current researchers are much more careful when designing their studies and developing their theories in order to avoid possible gender bias. In addition, an awareness of gender bias and gender differences has resulted in a number of studies that explore gender specific elements. For example, some psychologists now attempt to develop theories that emphasise the importance or value of women. As a result, this type of research helps to reduce or challenge gender stereotypes, which is important for reducing gender bias. Finally, an awareness of gender bias issues has led to the development of CRITERIA that aims to avoid gender bias in research (WORELL, 1992). For example, women in research should be studied in meaningful real life situations and should be genuine participants, not objects of study. Diversity within groups of women should also be studied, recognised and even emphasized. All of these aspects add detail and depth to contemporary psychology theory and give us a more holistic explanation of human behavior, while avoiding gender bias conclusions.

Question 14

Why is cultural bias a problem in psychological research

Answer 14

If research is based only on one culture, it is arguable that the results and conclusions are only relevant for that culture – i.e. the conclusions will not extrapolate to other cultures. If the ‘norm’ in for a behaviour is only judged from the standpoint of one culture, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard will be viewed as abnormal . This is known as cultural bias

Question 15

Give an example of cultural bias in psychological research

Answer 15

For example, when ASCH and MILGRAM’s studies into conformity and obedience are replicated in other parts of the world, very different results are often found (Kilham and Mann, 1974). It can be argued therefore that this research only reflects the cultural norms of the place of the original study. Perhaps Americans at the time were just more conformist and obedient compared to people from different cultures.

Question 16

Outline Alpha bias and beta bias in the Cultural Bias

Answer 16

Alpha bias occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different, and that recognition of these enduring differences must always inform psychological research and understanding.

Beta bias, on the other hand, occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions that mistakenly assume that all cultures are the same.

Question 17

Outline Ethnocentrism and give a psychological piece of research for Culture Bias

Answer 17

Ethnocentrism refers to a particular form of cultural bias and is a belief that one cultural group is superior . In psychological research, this may be upheld by the belief that any behaviour that does not conform to the dominant (normally Western) model are somehow deficient or abnormal. This criticism is levelled against a number of studies into Psychological Abnormality (many do not recognise cultural specific behaviours ) but also to classic research such as Ainsworth’s strange situation.

The Strange Situation judges and categorizes infant behaviour using behavioural categories developed from American observations. This approach assumes that behaviour has the same meaning in all cultures, which is not necessarily true. The research procedure reflects the norms and values of American culture, making it ethnocentric.

Question 18

Outline the distinction between Etics and Emics in psychology

Answer 18

An Etic approach looks at behaviour from the outside of a given culture and attempts to describe behaviour that are Universal .

An Emic approach looks within / inside cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.

Question 19

Outline Cultural relativism and imposed ethics in ainsworth’s research

Answer 19

Ainsworth’s research could be an example of an Imposed etic where a researcher imposes their own Culture or Cultural Understanding upon the rest of the world, assuming that it is the norm for everyone; she studied behaviour within one culture and Assumed the ideal attachment type can be applied universally, which may be inaccurate. In addition, using the strange situation to measure attachments outside of the West is an example of an imposed etic; the procedure was developed in the West based on Western cultural norms relating to child rearing, so it may not be an appropriate way to study the child-parent relationships in different cultures.

Question 20

Outline Cultural relativism and what key researchers are linked o the theory of Cultural Relativisim

Answer 20

BERRY argues that that Psychology is often guilty of making imposed etics, developing universal models and theories of human behaviour which come about through studying only one particular culture. Psychologists should be more mindful of CULTURAL RELATIVISM – the idea that the things that are observed in research may only make sense (i.e. they are only RELATIVE) from the perspective of the culture being observed – they cannot be applied to different cultures. Therefore the CONTEXT is considered vital.

Question 21

Evaluate and make commentary of cultural bias in psychology

Answer 21

We have to be careful not to over emphasise Cultural Bias in contemporary psychological research, especially with the Individualistic vs collectivist distinction
In the past, the great distinction between cultures was whether they were individualistic vs collectivists. Individualistic cultures (like the West, USA) value independence, personal freedom and individual achievement. Collectivist cultures such as India and China are said to place more emphasis on interdependence and the needs of the group. However, critics have argued that the development of modern society, in particular the increased interconnectedness between cultures, means that this distinction largely does not apply. For example TAKANO and OSAKA (1999) found that in 14 out of 15 studies, the traditional distinction between individual and collectivist cultures did not exist. Because of this we have to be cautious when considering cultural bias in research. Perhaps research is more culturally valid than the critics lead us to believe.

In addition, we have to be cautious that we do not assume all behaviour is culturally relative. The idea of cultural bias and imposed etic are important reminders to researchers about the importance of appreciating culture. However, it should not be assumed that all behaviour is culturally relative and that there are no universal behaviours. For example, research by Ekman, 1989, established that basic facial expressions for emotions are universal (the same all over the world). In addition, the notion of interactional synchrony is also thought to be a universal aspect. Therefore to fully understand human behaviour, we have to consider that some behaviours may be universal! However, we do have to careful with the operationalization of variables, as this may be culturally specific.

A major Advantage of increasing the awareness of cultural bias is that it has had major partial and theoretical applications and therefore has had a major contribution to psychology. By identifying the possible issues of cultural bias, we have significantly increased our understanding of the impact of culture, of cultural differences and also of culture specific behaviours. This has had major benefits, for example in the diagnosis of mental illness where culture specific behaviours were often mis-diagnosed as symptomatic of psychological abnormality.

In addition, this knowledge has also had practical advantages. Recent issues of diagnostic manuals such as the DSM now include a list of culture specific behaviours. This helps clinicians as it highlights the need to appreciate cultures specific behaviours and greatly increases the validity and reliability of the diagnostic process. Therefore the increases sensitivity to cultural bias and cultural differences has had major benefits, both with Psychology and beyond. It has also resulted in psychology developing as a discipline and reduces the charges of ‘scientific racism’, in addition to ensuring research, conclusions and theories have greater validity (as they recognise the role and impact of culture).

Question 22

Outline what is meant by Free Will

Answer 22

The notion of free will suggests that human behaviour is self-determined. The concept believes that humans
can choose their thoughts and actions and therefore have control over their behaviour. A belief in free will
does not deny that internal and external forces contribute to behaviour but ultimately that humans have
choice over how to behave in response to these

Question 23

What approach is linked to Free Will

Answer 23

Humanistic Psychologists argue against Determinism and claim that humans have self- determination and free will and therefore behaviour cannot be a result of any
single cause. Humanists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believe that individuals are in control of
their behaviour and are trying to achieve personal growth.

Question 24

Outline what is meant by the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 24

The free will versus determinism debate explores the extent to which our thoughts and behaviour are influenced by internal or external forces beyond our conscious control

Question 25

Outline what is meant by determinism in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 25

Determinism is the view that free will is an illusion and that we are governed by internal (biological) or external
(environmental) forces over which we have no control. Behaviour is therefore viewed as predictable as it
always has a cause. The causal laws of determinism form the basis of science. Internal causes would include
biological factors such as the influence of genetics or hormones on behaviour. External forces can include
elements of the environment including the role of parents in reinforcing behaviour. There are varying degrees of determinism including hard and soft determinism.

Question 26

Outline the The Scientific Emphasis on Causal Explanations in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 26

One of the basic principles of science is that all events have a cause. Knowledge of causes and the
formulation of causal laws allow scientists to predict behaviour. In Psychological research, the lab experiment
allows for an independent variable to be manipulated and observe the causal effect on a dependent
variable. Extraneous variables are able to be controlled which can enable psychologists to precisely predict
human behaviour

Question 27

Define Hard determinism

Answer 27

Hard determinism is completely incompatible with free will as it is the view that we have absolutely no control
over our behaviour and internal and external forces shape our behaviour.

There are 3 types of hard determinism Biological, Environmental and psychic determinism

Question 28

Outline Biological Determinism as a type of hard determinism and what approach it is linked to

Answer 28

Biological Determinism emphasises the role of biology in behaviour. It refers to the idea that behaviour is innate
and determined by genetic influences (including hormonal and neurochemical explanations).

The Biological Approach Family studies evidence a genetic vulnerability for developing psychological disorders such as OCD. Nestadt et al (2010) reviewed
twin studies and found high concordance rates in identical twins demonstrating the role of genetics
in causing OCD

Question 29

Outline Psychic Determinism as a type of hard determinism and what approach it is linked to

Answer 29

This type of determinism claims that human behaviour is directed by innate drives and unconscious conflicts repressed from childhood.

The Psychodynamic Approach- Freud claimed that child
development occurs in five stages each marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve. If the
child has unresolved conflicts then this leads to a fixation and the child can carry associated behaviours through to adult life

Question 30

Outline Environmental Determinism as a type of hard determinism and what approach it is linked to

Answer 30

This is the view that behaviour is determined by our Experience. BF Skinner proposed that free will is an
illusion and all behaviour is a result of conditioning. Behaviour can also be shaped by socialisation.

The Behaviourist Approach- The two process model suggests that phobias are acquired and maintained through conditioning. Watson and Raynor (1920)
illustrated this in their study of little albert which showed the acquisition of a fear response learnt through classical conditioning.

Question 31

Outline soft determinism in the free will vs determinism debate

Answer 31

Soft determinism suggests that behaviour is constrained by the environment or biology, however only to a certain extent. Soft Determinism suggests some behaviour may involve an element of free will. Soft determinism therefore argues that although behaviour may be predictable, it does not mean it is inevitable as ultimately, we can choose how to behave.

Question 32

Evaluate the Free will vs determinism debate

Answer 32

One argument for adopting a freewill stance over one of hard determinism is the negative implications of a
hard determinist way of explaining behaviour. If behaviour is determined by outside forces such as biology, then that provides a potential excuse for criminal
acts. Court cases in the US, for example, have attempted to use the defence that a genetic variant called the
MAOA gene was responsible for violent acts and even murders committed by offenders. Determinism as a
defence has never been successful in preventing a conviction so isn’t compatible with the legal system or with conventional views on morality. Freewill then is more compatible with society’s views on responsibility but also is more appropriate as it suggests that people can change and be rehabilitated rather than be controlled by their biology or upbringing.

Free will is appealing for many and is therefore viewed as intuitively correct. It is this experience that means the
determinism vs free will debate continues. Freewill is also supported by the Positive Psychology movement and
has had a positive influence with the effectiveness of such treatments including client-based therapy or
rehabilitation programmes in prison, supporting the value of recognising free will as a more positive approach
to explaining human behaviour. However, Psychologists such as Skinner would argue that the freewill versus
determinism debate is a pointless one as freewill is just an illusion. Libet et al (1983) supports this claim with their
research that found that the motor regions of the brain become active at least 2000 milli seconds before a
person registers conscious awareness of a decision, i.e. the decision to move the finger was actually a pre- determined action of the brain. This strongly suggests that many actions are biologically determined and that
even though we may believe we have freewill Skinner’s claim that it is an illusion may be correct.

There is an argument that the determinism viewpoint is a stronger one as it is consistent with the features of
science unlike freewill. The determinist way of studying behaviour allows for the manipulation of an
independent variable to see its effect on a dependant variable to establish cause and effect. This allows
psychologists to adopt an objective approach through the drawing of causal relationships that can predict future behaviour. Whereas the concept of free will is simply impossible to test. It is a non-physical vague concept that cannot be observed or quantified. This means that the concept cannot be falsified and as psychology is a science this idea is challenged by many who believe that if it is not measurable, it does not exist. However, those who adopt a freewill stance criticise science’s determinism for making sweeping generalisation about behaviour and with so many potential variables influencing human behaviour it is arguably impossible to identify one single cause for any one behaviour or to predict behaviour effectively, whereas, freewill looks at each person individually avoiding these sweeping generalisations.

When looking at the strengths and limitations of both sides of the freewill versus determinism debate it would
appear that neither may be fully correct. Maybe individuals do make conscious choices but they are
constrained to some extent by external and internal forces so the answer to the debate is in fact soft
determinism

Question 33

Outline what is meant in the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 33

The Nature Vs Nurture debate centres on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and
environmental influences (nurture) to human behaviour.

Question 34

Outline Nature side of the debate

Answer 34

Nature is known as the nativist position, and the basic assumption is that the characteristics of the human species are a product of evolution and that individual differences are the result of each person’s unique genetic code. Nature is the view that behaviour is the product of
innate biological or genetic factors.

Question 35

Define what is meant by Heredity in the Nature side of the Nature vs Nurture debate

Answer 35

Heredity is the process in which physical and psychological traits are genetically passed down from one generation to the next. Characteristics like height, weight, hair loss, life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses are positively correlated with genetic relatedness and this has led psychologists to investigate whether psychological characteristics are also “wired in” before we are born. Characteristics and differences that are not observable at birth, but which emerge later in life, are regarded by nativists as the product of maturation, as we have a “biological clock” which switches certain behaviours ‘on’ or ‘off’ in a pre-programmed way.

Question 36

Examples of theories that argue a Nativist point of view

Answer 36

Attachment- Bowlby proposed that children come into the world biologically programmed to form
attachments because this will help them to survive. This suggests attachment behaviours are naturally selected, and passed on as a result of generic inheritance (heredity mechanisms). Bowlby’s theory is supported by research by Lorenz and Harlow using animals. This theory therefore provides support for the influence of nature in attachment behaviour.

Schizophrenia- Family, twins and adoption studies show that the closer the relatedness of two people, the more likely it is that they will show the same behaviours. Gottesman (1991) pooled the results of around 40 family studies and found that the risk increases to 46% for those with two parents who have schizophrenia. This emphasises the importance of the contribution of genetics on behaviour and therefore provides evidence for the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate.

Question 37

Define Nurture in the Nurture vs Nature debate

Answer 37

Nurture is the view that behaviour is the product of environmental influences.

Question 38

Outline the Nurture debate

Answer 38

The environment is seen as everything outside the body which can include people, events and the physical world. Environmentalists (also known as empiricists) hold the assumption that the human mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) and that this is gradually “filled” as a result of experience. This view was first proposed by John Locke in the 17th Century and was later taken up by behavioural psychologists. For example, John Watson. According to environmentalists, psychological characteristics and behavioural differences that emerge through infancy and childhood are the result of learning.

Question 39

Examples of theories that take a nurture point of view

Answer 39

Attachment- Behavioural psychologists explain attachment in terms of classical conditioning, where food (unconditioned stimulus) is associated with the mother (neutral stimulus), and through many repeated pairings, the mother becomes a conditioned stimulus who elicits a conditioned response in the child. Therefore, the child forms an attachment based on the pleasure experienced as a result of being fed. This theory and the research supporting it demonstrates the role of nurture in attachment.

Schizophrenia- Environmental explanations can also partly explain the occurrence of schizophrenia. Bateson et al. (1956) proposed the Double Bind Theory which suggests that schizophrenia is the result of disordered
communication within the family environment. Children in such environments receive mixed messages about what is right and what is wrong and become confused about the world around them. Prolonged exposure to such interactions prevents the development of a coherent construction of reality, and in the long run, this manifests itself as schizophrenic symptoms. This theory supports the role of nurture and the environment in the development of psychological disorders such as schizophrenia

Question 40

Evaluate the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 40

As psychological knowledge has deepened, the nature nurture debate has grown increasingly complex and now some argue it is a distraction from more important matters. Plomin (1977) suggested the idea of a “passive influence” where a parents genes determine aspects of a child’s environment which affects their behaviour. For example, if a parent has a genetically determined mental illness this can create an unsettled home life which can indirectly lead to the child developing that mental disorder. Evidence for this comes from Tienari’s Finnish adoption study where children of schizophrenic mothers adopted into healthy families only had an incidence of schizophrenia of 5.8% compared with those raised in
dysfunctional families which was 36.8%. This demonstrates that without the biological mother’s influence on the environment schizophrenia was less likely to develop and that with a similar unsettled home life i.e., passive influence the genetic predisposition is just over 30% more likely to develop demonstrating the
interaction between nature and nurture.

Other psychologists have argued that the influence can work in the other direction with life experiences shaping our nature. Neuroplasticity is a term which describes the
changes in the structure of the brain (nature), as a result of life experience (nurture). Demonstrated by Maguire et al (2000) investigated the hippocampi volume of London
taxi drivers’ brains. She found that this region of the brain (heavily involved in spatial skills in humans and animals) was larger in taxi drivers in comparison to non-taxi drivers. Consequently, Maguire concluded that the rigorous training including learning and recalling all
the London streets and routes as well as experience driving the taxi (nurture) influenced the size of the
hippocampi (nature) supporting the theory of neural plasticity and the interaction of nature and nurture.

Most psychologists now consider it far too simplistic to consider nature and nurture in isolation of one another and instead adopt an Interactionist approach. A celebrated example being the diathesis stress model that states that even though a person may have a biological vulnerability, for e.g. the SERT or COMT candidate gene linked to OCD. OCD will only be triggered by a stressor in the environment. Research has suggested that not everybody with these candidate genes go on to develop OCD and this interaction with the environment (nurture) is needed. The diathesis stress model then suggests that it is impossible to say which is more important nature or nurture as for nature to be expressed nurture must be
involved. Also looking at behaviour in terms of an interactionalist approach rather than nature OR nurture
has also led to improvements in the way we explain and treat many physical and psychological illnesses and so interactionism is a more useful way at looking at behaviour.

Question 41

Outline what is meant by the Reductionism vs Holism debate

Answer 41

This debate is concerned with whether it is best to understand the complexity of human behaviour by reducing it to their simplest structures or parts or to view human behaviour as a whole integrated experience in which we consider how multiple variants are interacting.

Question 42

Outline the levels of explanation in the Reductionism vs Holism debate

Answer 42

Rose (1976) proposed that there are different levels of explanation that are taken to explain behaviour varying
from those at a lower or fundamental level focusing on basic components or units to those at a higher more
holistic multivariable level. We need to think of reductionism as a hierarchy moving from extreme reductionism of the hard sciences (low-level) through biological level to broader psychological levels (mid-level) and then to sociological level (high-level).

• Lowest level = Extreme reductionist. Biological reductionism where behaviour is explained in its smallest parts including genetics, neurochemicals and biological structures. At this level explanations are considered reductionist.
• Middle level explanations = Psychological Explanations (Machine reductionism as in cognitive psychology or Environmental reductionism as in behaviourism).
• The highest level = Holistic multivariable level. This level considers both Social and Cultural explanations where behaviour is explained in regard to social groups.

Question 43

Outline the Memory category to the Reductionism vs Holism explanations

Answer 43

Social and Cultural explanations= The effects of social factors in post event contamination e.g the role of
post event discussion or misleading questions.

Psychological explanations - Cognitive Psychologists explain memory through theoretical models
such as the Multistore model of memory. Evidence from Miller and Peterson and Peterson support this.

Biological explanations- Bio Psychologists look at the basic physiological level, eg action of acetylcholine and role of the hippocampus

Question 44

Outline the Forensics category of the Reductionism vs Holism debate

Answer 44

Social and Cultural explanations - Differential association theory such as Sutherland would suggest offending is
due to frequency and intensity of social groups holding more pro-crime attitudes and values than those with
anti-crime.

Psychological explanations - Cognitive Psychologists such as Kohlberg explain offending behaviour as has a lower
level of moral development. Operating at a preconventional level based on punishment or rewards.

Biological explanations- Offending behaviour is the result of genetics such as the MAOA gene or Offending
behaviour can be reduced down to structural brain differences such as an underactive amygdala in the limbic system.

Question 45

Outline the lowest level of explanation - Reductionism

Answer 45

Those who support this viewpoint suggest that behaviour as a whole is best understood if we explore the parts contributing to the system. Reductionism is based on scientific assumptions of parsimony: the idea that all should be explained in the simplest terms possible. This is similar to the concept of
Occam’s Razor which argues the answer to any problem is often the simplest explanation.

Question 46

Outline the three main types of reductionism

Answer 46

Extreme Biological Reductionism refers to the way that biological Psychologists reduce behaviour to its
physical level. Biological Psychologists reduce behaviour to single biological components such as genetics,
neurons, neurotransmitters and hormones. Explanations of Psychological illness that highlight a biological
cause are biologically reductionist. The theory that Schizophrenia is caused by excessive activity of the
neurotransmitter dopamine is reducing schizophrenia to the single component of dopamine.

Environmental Reductionism is also known as stimulus-response reductionism. Behaviourists support the
concept of classical conditioning which assumes behaviour can be reduced to a stimulus- response (S-R)
where behaviour is shaped by learnt associations. Complex behaviours are explained here by a series of S-R
chains.

Machine reductionism Explanations which liken human behaviour to that of a machine. For example as seen
in the cognitive approach the use models of memory such as the multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
This means that such explanation ten dot overlook the influence of emotional and social factors.

Question 47

Outline Holism argument in the Reductionism vs Holism debate

Answer 47

Holism is supported by Gestalt Psychology which explores how we perceive something in the real world and argues that we do so as a whole rather than as a collection of pieces. We only make sense of and perceive
our world accurately through considering the whole image. Therefore by separating human behaviour into parts, this means that complex behaviour can be easily misunderstood. People who agree with Holism do not deny the potential influence of genetics of biochemistry but feel that human behaviour is far from complex
and that consequently it is necessary to take a step back from the detail and consider the person from a less reductionist level. The social context that are in is very important, as are their family and friends. For this reason
they are drawn to higher levels of explanation such as social groups and social cognition.

Question 48

Define Holism

Answer 48

Holism comes from the greek word “Holos” which means “whole”. Holism is the argument that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not through separating its parts.

Question 49

Define Reductionism

Answer 49

Reductionism is the view that human behaviour can be explained through reducing the individual’s behaviour
down into simpler parts.

Question 50

Outline how the Humanistic approach links to the Holism debate

Answer 50

Humanists support the Holistic approach as they argue that humans experience stimuli as a whole. Humanists
such as Maslow propose theories such as the “hierarchy of Needs” that consider all contributors to human
behaviour uses.Humanists use qualitative methods to support their holistic investigation of Psychology.

Question 51

Evaluate the Reductionism vs Holism debate

Answer 51

One argument supporting a reductionist way of explaining behaviour is that reductionism takes a scientific approach in research unlike holism. Studying basic units of behaviour in research by isolating variables
underpins the scientific way of studying behaviour and so is more objective, it also provides empirical support
for psychological theory e.g. the role of serotonin in symptoms of OCD. Holism however has been criticised
due to its untestable nature. Those taking this view would argue that as multiple variables are interacting research should not attempt to isolate variables. Furthermore its not possible to find objective evidence of behaviour, as it looks at vague concepts like freewill and human motivation. Reductionists argue that science is a reductionist endeavor and if Psychology is truly a science, then it should be too.

Due to the scientific nature of biological reductionism it has been possible to develop successful therapies. For
example isolating the variable of serotonin as a single cause of depression it has allowed drug therapies to be
developed such as SSRI’s which have been successful at reducing symptoms of depression and allowing
people to go back to work and live a normal life. However, critics would argue that this is a limited way of
treating behaviour because if a person stops taking the drugs the symptoms will return. Those who advocate a
holistic approach to treating mental illness would suggest using biological and psychological therapies simultaneously. Research by Craighead and Dunlop (2014) found a combination of drugs and CBT was more
effective at treating depression than either of them used separately. Therefore while reductionist approaches
have lead to successful outcomes in treatment there is an argument that taking this approach only addresses
part of the problem.

A holistic way of explaining behaviour may be considered more appropriate as reductionism is considered the
lowest level of explanation. Reducing behaviour to component parts such as biology by saying depression is
caused by low serotonin for e.g. may result in an incomplete understanding of the behaviour. For example by reducing Psychological illness to the biological level this ignores the complexity; context and function of such
behaviour. whereas adopting a more holistic approach in which the multiple factors are understood in how
they interact with each other gives a better understanding. Someone may be more biological predisposed to psychological illness however this needs to be understood in the context of their culture and life experiences. For example there are some culturally specific differences in the way anxiety and depression is manifested and treated. Or if we consider offending behaviour someone may be genetically predisposed but they are also exposed to social groups with pro-crime attitudes, they are experiencing poverty and/ or hostility in society. Therefore reductionist explanations may only ever offer us part of the explanation but holistic
explanations may have greater explanatory power in fully understanding behaviour.

Question 52

Outline what the debate of Idiographic vs Nomothetic means

Answer 52

This Debate considers the extent to whether Idiographic or Nomothetic approaches to research in Psychology are more appropriate in aiding our understanding of behaviour. Is it more important to establish norms and
similarities across groups or to study the individual seeing them as unique?

**So unlike the other debates think of this one more like a research methods debate. Should we use quantitative methods or qualitative methods. **

Question 53

Define Nomothetic

Answer 53

From the Greek “Nomos” meaning law Psychologists are concerned with establishing general laws about behaviour from the study of groups of people using quantitative statistical techniques.

Question 54

Define Idiographic

Answer 54

From the Greek word “Idios” meaning own. Psychologists who take this approach focus on the individual and emphasise the unique experience of human behaviour. They will study individuals using qualitative data.

Question 55

What are the 3 types of general laws in the Nomothetic approach

Answer 55

It is proposed that there are 3 types of general laws:
* Classification - this is the idea that people can be classified into certain groups according to characteristics. E.g. Diagnostic manuals such as the The ICD-10 and DSM-5 both attempt to diagnosis people with mental health disorder by the symptoms they present.
* Establishing principles – this is the focus of trying to establish laws and principles that can be applied to
human behaviour. There are many examples in psychology of laws that propose cause and effect.
For example Biological Psychologists take a nomothetic approach as to identify trends and generate causal laws. For example when explaining Psychological disorders such as OCD. They pinpoint biological factors that
tend to be responsible for disorders and use this law to inform treatments such as drug therapies to treat all patients with. Or Behaviourist psychologists who look to laws of classical and operant conditioning to explain learnt responses E.g. the cause of maintaining a phobia is attributed to negatively reinforcing it through avoidance. Such laws are then used in systematic desensitisation to
treat the phobia.
* Establishing dimensions- This is the attempt to document continuums upon which an individual can be placed. This allows comparisons with others. E.g. in personality research dimensions of extroversion-introversion are used

Question 56

Outline the Nomothetic approach

Answer 56

Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws of behaviour
based on the study of large groups of participants that can be applied across any given population. It is proposed that there are 3 types of general laws: Classification, Establishing principles and Establishing dimensions.

All three types of laws means that quantitate methods of data collection and analyses are needed. Therefore
those taking a Nomothetic Approach would use methods including Experiments, Correlations, Meta-Analysis…
All of which allow for statistical analysis which determines whether a difference or association found in a
particular investigation is statistically significant more than could have occurred by chance. Such methods and
analysis give greater confidence when applying findings to wider populations. Which is exactly what the
nomothetic approach aims to do.

Question 57

Briefly outline the Idiographic approach

Answer 57

The Idiographic approach focuses on the individual and emphasising the unique personal experience.
Therefore this viewpoint does not seek to generalize findings from research to others. Indeed strong supporters of the idiographic stance would be unlikely to conduct large scale studies or use quantitative methods at all. Consequently those taking this stance use Qualitative research methods such as case studies, unstructured interviews and thematic analysis which give depth and insight into individual behaviour. Such methods allow for opinion, attitude and self reflection from the participant, gaining detail rich information.

Question 58

Give a Case study examples demonstrating the Idiographic approach

Answer 58

For example Case studies provide an in-depth insight into an individual or small group which can be used to
evaluate a theory. Case studies can be found to undermine whole theories and inspire future enquiry for
example in the case study of Patient KF in memory. The Patients short term memory (STM) of auditory
information was greater than his forgetting of visual information suggesting that STM is not one unitary
component thus challenging the validity of the multistore model of memory. The case study of Clive Wearing
again from the topic of memory was useful in evidencing the existence of the difference memory stores of Long term memory this demonstrates the usefulness of an idiographic approach and the use of case studies in
Psychology

Question 59

Give an examples of approaches in the Idiographic approach

Answer 59

Further case study approaches can be seen in the Humanistic and Psychodynamic Approaches. Freud conducted detailed investigations of his patients to understand their Psychological disorders, a famous study being that of little Hans. Freud’s case study work
contributed to Psychology emphasising the importance of early childhood events and their impact on later behaviour including attachment and offending.

As the viewpoint is interested in the unique experience it is completely irrelevant to even try to develop universal laws of behaviour. You can see this reflected in humanistic psychology e.g. for instance Carl Rogers
focused on the study of the self and the importance of personal growth and self-actualization.

Question 60

Evaluate the Idiographic vs Nomothetic debate

Answer 60

The Nomothetic approach is considered scientific as it adopts quantitative experimental methods and findings from such research have the ability to predict behaviour whereas the qualitative methods used in the Idiographic approach is criticised for its essentially unscientific nature, subjectivity and inability to draw general laws or predictions. This limits the usefulness of the idiographic approach particularly in its application and treatment of psychological disorders. However supporters of the idiographic approach still argue that it is only through the understanding of a single individual that Psychologists can truly predict behaviour and its in-depth analysis increases the validity of its findings over the reliance of statistics.

As the Nomothetic approach adopts the laws of science it is useful in identifying trends; predicting and controlling behaviour which has useful applications. For example the Biological perspective adopts a nomothetic approach when explaining the cause of disorders such as OCD. This has led to the development of drug therapies to treat chemical imbalance such as SSRI’s. Some Psychologists argue however that alternate treatments such as talking therapies such as humanistic Client Centered therapy
are more suitable as they adopt a more person centred approach which is based on the principles of an
idiographic approach

An Idiographic stance such as a case study is often the seed that prompts an idea for further research. An idiographic study explores a behaviour or phenomenon with depth and detail that will often lead to new research ideas or challenge previous theory and assumption from nomothetic research. What this suggests is that both
methods have value and Psychology should adopt a mixed methods approach with idiographic and Nomothetic methods used to complement and challenge each other. This can be seen in approaches such as the Cognitive approach use nomothetic approaches to draw general laws but also use idiographic methods to explore topics such as memory with more depth. Eysenck’s theory of personally explains uniqueness through drawing on general laws of personality. Therefore the
idiographic/nomothetic distinction could be argued to be a false separation.

Question 61

Define Ethical Guidelines

Answer 61

The ethical implications of psychological research concern the way that research impacts on those who take part in research and also on the way the findings are communicated to the public and how the findings are
used. Psychologists have focused particular attention on the implications of findings that a re socially sensitive.

Question 62

Define socially sensitive research

Answer 62

Socially sensitive research refers to ‘studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications,
either directly for the participants in the research or the class of individuals represented by the research’ (Sieber and Stanley 1988). Such potential consequences may lead to a change in, or justification for, the way these groups are treated/perceived.

Question 63

What could make research socially sensitive? ( 4 categories)

Answer 63

Seiber and Stanley identified 4 aspects in the research process at which ethical issues with social
consequences may occur.

• The Research Question: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.
• The Methodology Used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant’s and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, or to having unprotected sex if they are HIV positive, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?
• The Institutional Context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?
• Interpretation and Application of Findings: Finally, the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world

Question 64

Outline a very famous piece of research that highlights all of Sieber and Stanley

Answer 64

One very famous piece of research that highlights all of Sieber and Stanleys 4 aspects is the work by Cyril Burt.
It also demonstrates numerous consequences for wider society. Cyril Burt was influential in establishing the 11+ examination in the UK. Which was used to determine whether children had a secondary modern education or went on to study a grammar school. Burts views were based on the evidence he produced that intelligence was genetic, citing studied of twins that showed a heritability co-efficient of .77 (Burt 1955). Discrepancies in his ‘data’ later revealed that Burt had made much of it up, as well as inventing two research assistants, and he was publicly discredited. The 11+ however, and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their ‘natural’ intelligence remained for a long time - along with the subsequence damage it had on young people’s life chances.

Question 65

Ethical Implications of Research Studies on the participants themselves

Answer 65

Milgram’s research has several ethical issues as participants in his research into obedience were highly deceived and were unable to give fully informed consent.
The research methodology caused distress and the participants did not feel as if they could withdraw. The participants were debrief afterwards and there were
follow up interviews however the results of the research may have affected the participants as they may have found the fact that they obeyed authority with the
potential to cause another individual harm difficult to accept.

Zimbardo’s prison experiment has also been criticised for being highly unethical due to the distress caused for
the participants. The observable Psychological harm experienced was so extreme to the extent that the
research had to be stopped early as a result of the psychological distress presented by the participants who
were in the role of the prisoner. The guards may also have felt distress after the experiment due to the nature
of the behaviour they demonstrated and abuse they subjected the prisoners too.

Question 66

Ethical Implications of research on the wider population.

Answer 66

Bowlby’s theory of attachment and monotropy suggests that children form one special attachment bond and
this is usually with the mother. This attachment must also be formed within a critical period. Bowlby also
suggested that this can form an internal working model for future relationships. This theory ethical implications
as it argues that a women’s role is to be the primary care giver in the home which may make women feel
guilty for wanting to or returning to work. This can also have implications on fathers who may be discouraged
to be the care giver or this may cause single parent fathers concern over their ability to form attachments.

Raine et al’s (1997) research used brain scans of violent criminals to examine their level of impulse control. Raine found that there was damage to most areas of the
brains, focused around the frontal lobe which specialises in impulse control. The research could be seen as socially sensitive as the findings may be interpreted in a way that suggests that children should have brain scans to identify a predisposition for offending behaviour. Children, their parents and the general society would feel unease as to then what to do with the knowledge that a child or children have a predisposition to violent criminal behaviour. This could lead to support for genetic engineering to avoid criminal genes being transmitted which is highly socially sensitive. It could also have sensitive legal implications as the theory supports a determinist view in that the individual is not seen as culpable in a criminal act and violent crimes could thus not lead to convictions.

Question 67

Evaluate Ethical Implications and Socially Sensitive Research

Answer 67

Socially Sensitive research can have negative implications on members of society. For example Bowlby’s Maternal deprivation hypothesis argues that attachment forms with a primary care giver which is usually the mother. This has negative implications on society as it may cause or increase levels of discrimination towards fathers who are primary care givers or anxiety and concern for single parents in their ability to form attachments. It could also enhance stigma around mothers who return to work and place their children in ChildCare. A solution to this is to ensure Psychologists consider the wider implications of their research not just prior to but after publication. This could involve Psychologists engaging more actively with the media and with policy makers after publication.

Through highlighting the potential implications of research and theory psychologists are able to potentially
safeguard the participant’s as well as their family and able to consider the wider implications of their research
on society. This awareness has greatly improved and is undoubtedly important. However it is also important
that Psychologists are able to conduct important Socially sensitive research that may have the potential to
benefit society. An example of this could be from the studies investigating the cause of Gender Identity
disorder (GID) which could be deemed to have ethical implications as may be sensitive to participants.
Avoiding the study of vulnerable or underrepresented groups such as those with GID may be detrimental as
research into these topics may actually promote a greater sensitivity and understanding of Gender which can help reduce prejudice and stigma.

Often investigation into socially sensitive research topics provides conclusions that are highly useful and ones
which can directly impact policy and practice to benefit society. Research into the unreliability of eyewitness
testimony and the role of anxiety in EWT has reduced the risk of miscarriages of justice Socially Sensitive research can be used by the government and other organisations to positively shape policy. For example research into the role of same sex parents and the role of the father in attachment has contributed to the relatively recent introduction of paternity leave for fathers and the introduction of father skin on skin contact with their babies shortly after birth. This further demonstrates the importance and usefulness in conducting socially sensitive research in psychology