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BIO 431 > Respiratory and Lymphatic Lecture > Flashcards

Respiratory and Lymphatic Lecture Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the process of B cell development.

A

created in the red bone marrow and gain immunocompetent and self tolerance there.

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2
Q

What are the main functions of the respiratory system?

A

Provide O2 for cellular respiration
Remove CO2
maintain acid-base balance

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3
Q

How are volume, pressure, and airflow involved in in quiet inspiration?

A

Increase thoracic volume and lung volume
Decrease interpulmonary pressure
Increase airflow into lungs

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4
Q

Do B cells respond to intracellular or extracellular antigens?

A

extracellular antigens

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5
Q

Outline lymph’s flow through lymphatic structures.

A

capillaries-> vessels-> lymph nodes-> vessels-> trunk-> duct-> vein-> heart

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6
Q

What is the role of hemoglobin (Hb) in oxygen transport?

A

Carries 4 molecules of oxygen

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7
Q

Discuss the function of lymphocytes and phagocytic cells.

A

Lymphocytes- B, T (adaptive) and natural killer cells (innate). Neutralize pathogens
Phagocytes- macrophages and dendritic cells (innate), phagocytize pathogens

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8
Q

What is a partial pressure?

A

The pressure of a gas in a mixture which is related to the proportion of the gas in the mixture

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9
Q

How is oxygen transported in the blood?

A

On heme groups (iron) on hemoglobin in red blood cells

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10
Q

How is CO2 exchanged at the lungs and at the tissues?

A

Via a partial pressure gradient and a chemical reaction
CO2+H2O->H2CO3->H+ + HCO3-
carbonic anhydrase is enzyme that catalyzes CO2+H2o -> H2CO3 and back

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11
Q

What causes quiet expiration to occur?

A

Signal from VRG stops, diaphragm and external intercostals relax

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12
Q

Describe the different classes of antibodies and where they are found.

A

IgM: plasma
IgA: secreations
IgD: B cell surface receptor
IgG: plasma
IgE: receptors on mast cells

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13
Q

Describe voice production and how the pitch of sound is altered.

A

caused by vibration of the true vocal cords.
pitch determined by the length and tension of vocal cords.
slow vibes= low pitch
fast vibes=high pitch
sound is shaped in the pharyx and skull

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14
Q

What is the difference between active and passive humoral immunity?

A

Active requires an immune response to create immunity, passive does not because they are given.

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15
Q

How is ventilation controlled using the medullary (VRG and DRG) and pontine respiratory centers?

A

VRG directly signals to the respiratory muscles based on central chemoreceptors and feedback from DRG.
DRG gathers feedback from peripheral chemoreceptors and thoracic receptors
pontine smooths out breathing and monitors breathing during speech and sleep

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16
Q

Discuss the activation and clonal expansion processes for T helper and T cytotoxic cells.

A

T Helper:
1. APC phagocytizes antigen
2. APC displays processed antigen on MHC 2 receptor
3. TH recognizes antigen and binds to antigen on MHC 2 receptor (CD4 helps bind)
4. TH induces APC to costimulate it to allow it to divide. Th stimulates APC, APC creates protein to stimulate TH
5. clonal expansion of TH to create effector TH and memory TH cells.
6. Effector TH cells release cytokines which costimulate Tc cells and B cells to replicate and stimulate inflammation and macrophages.

Cytotoxic T cells:
1. TH induces APC to present the same antigen on MHC 1 as MHC 2.
2. Cytotoxic T cells recognize self MHC 1 and foreign antigen and TC binds with antigen (CD8 binds)
3. Cytokines released by effector TH costimulate TC
4. Clonal expansion, mostly effector TC cells and some TC memory cells.
5. Effector cells circulate in blood and lymph looking for specific antigen on all nucleated cells. Kill with perforin and granzymes.

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17
Q

Describe the functions and locations of the major lymphatic vessels, trunks, and ducts.

A

Cervical, inguinal, and illiac vesels.
Lumbar (2), bronchiomediastinal (2), subclavian (2), jugular (2), and intestinal truncks. CIsterna Chyli for lumbar and intestinal.
Right lymphatic duct- R subclavian, R broncho, R jugular, and drains into R subclavian vein.
Thoracic duct- cisterna chyli, L jugular, L subclavian, and L broncho, drains into L subclavian vein.

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18
Q

How do the roles of effector helper T cells (TH) and effector cytotoxic T cells (TC) differ?

A

TH dictate the beginning of the immune response and tell TC and B cells what to do and to replicate
TC circulate in the body looking for antigen to kill via perforin and granzymes

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19
Q

What are the 3 main functions of the larynx?

A

provide patent airway, direct food/air into proper tubes, voice and speech production

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20
Q

Describe the actions antibodies take against antigens.

A

Neutralization: neutralizes antigen and attracts phagocytes
Agglutination: creates clump of antigens which attract phagocytes
precipitation: makes soluble antigens fall out of suspension and become visible to phagocytes
complement fixation: complement cascade, consistent with its role in promoting chemotaxis, opsonization, and cell lysis.
Opsonization: cover antigen to attract phagocytes
activate natural killer cells

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21
Q

What are the functions of the lymphatic system?

A

collect tissue fluid, filter pathogens, return fluid volume to blood

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22
Q

Describe the four physiological processes of the respiratory system: pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, gas transport, and internal respiration.

A

pulmonary ventilation-breating
external respiration- gas exchange between outside air and body at lungs
gas transport- blood transport
internal respiration- gas exchange at tissue

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23
Q

Describe the functions of the major organs of the respiratory system (nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, lungs).

A

Nasal cavity/sinus- warm/cleanse/humidify air, increase surface area, and change the resonance of the voice. Smelling receptors

pharynx- warm/cleanse/humidify air

larynx- provide patent airway, direct food/air into proper tubes, voice and speech production

trachea/bronchi-direct air, have irritant receptors

bronchioles- direct air and control amount of air coming into respiratory zone

alveoli- gas exchange

lungs- bring in air to body and create pressure gradients

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24
Q

Describe the difference between hyperpnea, hyperventilation, and hypoventilation. Are arterial blood gases altered in case? If so, how?

A

hyperpnea- increase in rate and depth to maintain O2 and CO2 levels (exercise)
hyperventilation- decrease CO2 and increase O2, increase rate and depth
hypoventilation- increase CO2 and decrease O2, decrease rate and depth

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25
Q

What cells are phagocytes?

A

Monocyte= precursor cell
Macrophage-innate and adaptive responses
Dendritic cell- deliver antigen to local lymph nodes
neutrophils- migrates from blood to infected tissue, first on scene, phagocytize but die

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26
Q

What is Boyle’s law?

A

P1V1=P2V2 pressure and volume are inversely related

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27
Q

Discuss the structure, function, and locations of the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphoid nodules (tonsils, MALT).

A

thymus- near heart, train T cells

lymph nodes- throughout body, capsule with cortical lymph follicles and medullar cords and vessels entering and exiting. Filter lymph and holds lymphocytes and phagocytes. Site of activation for T and B cells

Spleen- left upper quadrant, contains red and white pulp, filters blood for pathogens, breaks down old RBC and store iron and platelets and monocytes

Lymphoid nodules- clusters of lymphocytes on reticular tissue in the respiratory and digestive tract. Tonsils

MALT- mucosa associated lymphoid tissue, in mucus membranes, peyer’s patches in small intestine. Appendix

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28
Q

What is the difference between a primary and a secondary immune response?

A

Primary: makes lots of plasma cells, mem B cells, and antibodies.
Secondary: antigen binds to memory B cells and antibodies are made quicker and bind to antigen harder. plasma cells last longer

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29
Q

Describe the mechanism used by effector TC during cell lysis

A

release perforin and granzymes on antigen. Perforin pokes holes in the cell membrane and the granzymes enter and cause apoptosis

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30
Q

Discuss the general functions of lymphocytes and antigen presenting cells in the adaptive immune response.

A

APC’s bring pieces of digested antigen to T cells for identification by displaying them on MHC receptors. If identified, the cells will proliferate to fight the antigen.

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31
Q

Discuss the structure and function of pleurae

A

parietal and visceral pleura
pleural cavity filled with pleural fluid
reduce friction and part of inhalation

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32
Q

What is the Haldane effect?

A

Describes the relationship between PO2 and the affinity of hemoglobin for CO2.
The more O2 on hemoglobin, the less CO2 will bind and inversely.

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33
Q

What are the different sources of blood circulating to the lungs?

A

Pulmonary circulation for gas exchange (pulmonary)
systemic circulation for gas/nutrients to tissues (bronchial)

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34
Q

What influences Hb saturation?

A

blood pH- low pH makes O2 unload more
temp- increase temp causes more unloading , vice versa
PCO2- increased PCO2, easier to unload

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35
Q

How do higher brain centers and thoracic receptors influence ventilation?

A

Higher brain centers can override VRG and DRG (hold breath)
Thoracic receptors can communicate to DRG to cause coughing/sneezing/bronchoconstriction or reduced depth of breathing (effectors relax)

36
Q

(Ppul, Pip, transpulmonary), where they are located, and why they are important. How do they relate to atmospheric pressure (Patm)?

A

Ppul- pressure in alveoli, flutuates with breathing
Pip- pressure in the pleural cavity, fluctuates with breathing but always negative pressure
transpiulmonary- differences between Ppul and Pip.
Ppul can be less or equal to Patm, Pip always less than Patm.

37
Q

What is ventilation-perfusion coupling, how is it altered, and why is it important?

A

Blood flow and airflow must match to properly ventilate. The body will compensate to make these two match.
Changes in PO2 cause changes in the arterioles
Changes in CO2 cause changes in the bronchioles

38
Q

What occurs in forced inspiration?

A

Diaphragm, external intercostals, and accessory muscles in neck and chest contract (sternocleidomastoid, erector spinae, pecs)

39
Q

What are antigens? What are the two types?

A

any substance that can provoke an immune response.
complete antigens-immunogenic (produce response) and reactive (reacts with immune cells)
haptens- must bind to a body protein to be immunogenic. Not usually immunogenic, allergies.

40
Q

Where do B cells gain immunocompetence and where do they meet their specific antigen?

A

created in the red bone marrow and gain immunocompetent and self tolerance there. Meet their specific antigen in secondary lymphoid tissue

41
Q

Describe the functions of the adaptive immune system.

A

Provide specific immune responses and create a memory of antigens. Can self-recognize and creates a systemic response.

42
Q

Describe the structure and function of lymphatic capillaries.

A

One-way transport. More permeable than blood capillaries and have overlapping endothelial cells that form mini valves to let interstitial fluid in and are anchored by collagen fibers. If higher interstitial fluid pressure, valves open.

43
Q

What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation and why specifically does each occur?

A

Redness: arteriole dilation increased blood flow
Heat: arteriole dilation increased blood flow
Swelling: increased permeability of capillaries
Pain: caused by swelling inflammatory chemicals
~Loss of function: recognition of injury

44
Q

Discuss the clonal expansion of B cells and the cells that are produced.

A
  1. Bound effector TH cell releases cytokines to stimulate B cell
  2. Clonal expansion of B cell, produces plasma cells (effector cells) and memory B cells
  3. Plasma cells produce antibodies that circulate and search for the antigen that caused their creation. Bind to antigen.
45
Q

What are cytokines and why are they important?

A

A group of proteins that when released stimulate immune responses such as clonal expansion, inflammation, and other immune responses.

46
Q

What is dead space?

A

anatomical dead space- air remaining in conducting airways that never reaches the alveoli
alveolar dead space- non functioning alveoli

47
Q

Describe the structure and function of an alveolus.

A

Balloon-like structure surrounded by pulmonary capillaries. Gas exchange

48
Q

What causes quiet inspiration to occur?

A

signals from the ventral respiratory group cause the diaphragm and external intercostals to contract and increase the size of the thoracic cavity

49
Q

Discuss the Hb-O2 dissociation curve.

A

The more O2 dissociates from HB, the more it wants to unload the oxygen. And vice versa.

50
Q

Define the various respiratory volumes (TV, IRV, ERV, RV) and capacities (IC, FRC, VC, TLC) as learned in lab and identify each on a graph.

A

tidal volume- quiet inspiration and expiration
inspiratory reserve volume- forced inhalation
expiratory reserve volume- forced exhalation
residual volume- air that remains after forced exhalation
Inspiratory capacity- total that can be breathed in
Functional residual capacity- whats left in the lungs after quiet exhalation
vital capacity- total of what can come in and out
total lung capacity- amount of air lung can hold

51
Q

How are the Bohr effect and Haldane effect related?

A

At tissues, more CO2 enters the blood, lowering the pH, and more O2 disassociates from hemoglobin (Bohr)
As HbO2 releases O2, Hb binds to more CO2 to form carbaminohemoglobin (Haldane)

52
Q

What factors influence pulmonary gas exchange?

A

pressure gradients, gas solubility, rate and depth of breathing, fuction and structure of alveoli/respiratory membrane

53
Q

How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

A

On the globin proteins on hemeglobin 20%
dissolved in plasma 10%
as bicarbonate ions in plasma 70%

54
Q

How do natural killer cells function?

A

induce apoptosis in cells infected with viruses or intracellular bacteria. Surface molecule fas ligand binds to infected cell and causes apoptosis. Or, releases perforin and granzymes to poke holes in cell membrane and enter to cause apoptosis.

55
Q

Describe the process of T cell development.

A

Originate in red bone marrow and travel to the thymus for maturation.
Gain immunocompetence and self tolerance.
Positive selection : If T cells bind to MHC they are kept, if they do not they lyse
Negative selection: if T cells do not bind to self made antigens, they continue, if they bind they lyse
T cells go through DNA recombination to create specific receptors
only 2% of cells make it through, released to secondary lymph organs
Gain CD4 (TH) or CD8 (TC) receptor after antigen challenge.

56
Q

What occurs in forced expiration?

A

Diaphragm and external intercostals relax
Accessory muscles contract (internal intercostals and abdominal muscles)

57
Q

How can immunity be naturally or artificially acquired?

A

Active: illness (natural) vax (artificial)
Passive: maternal (natural) immunoglobin treatments (antivenom) (artificial)

58
Q

Do T cells respond to intracellular or extracellular antigens?

A

Both
TC intracellular
TH extracellular

59
Q

How are volume, pressure, and airflow involved in quiet expiration?

A

Thoracic cavity and lung volume decrease
Increase intrapulmonary pressure
Airflow goes out of the lungs

60
Q

What structures make up the respiratory membrane and what is the function of this membrane?

A

Type I pneumocytes
Shared basement membrane
Capillary endothelium
gas exchange

61
Q

Discuss how fever occurs and why it is important.

A

Systemic increase in body temperature in response to invading microorganisms
leukocytes and macrophages secrete pyrogens-> pyrogens acto on hypothalamus->hypothalamus ups temperature

Causes liver and spleen to sequester iron and zinc from microbes that may want is and increases metabolic rate

62
Q

Describe the process of phagocytosis.

A

Endocytosis of antigen-> contained in a phagosome-> lysosomes merge with phagosome to create phagolysosome->antigen is digested by enzymes in lysosomes->released by exocytosis. Some digested antigen retained to show to T and B cells

63
Q

What type of MHC proteins and antigens do TC and TH specifically bind to become activated?

A

MHC 1 recognized by TC, endogenous antigens (inside cells) viruses, self antigens, and intracellular bacteria and parasites
MHC 2 is recognized by TH, exogenous foreign antigens.

64
Q

Describe the differences between the conducting zone and respiratory zone.

A

Conducting zone warms, cleanses, and humidifies air. upper part of the respiratory tract.
Respiratory zone is gas exchange, lower part of tract

65
Q

Describe respiratory rate and depth.

A

breaths per minute
how deep your breaths are

66
Q

Describe the functions of soluble mediators (interferon and complement).

A

Interferon Alpha and Beta-produced by cells infected with a virus. Interferon notifies other cells there is a virus nearby and to release anti-viral proteins and tells other infected cells to undergo apoptosis. Signals to natural killer cells to kill infected cells.
Interferon-gamma- produces by lymphocytes to activate macrophages

Complement- plasma proteins made by liver. Must be activated, circulates in blood. Activated by binding to antibody and antigen complex. Causes:
opsonization- coats surface of antigen to attract macrophages
chemotaxis- attracts phagocytes to the area
increase inflammation by releasing histamine
membrane attack complex- proteins punch holes in cell membrane to create large pore that allows fluid to enter and cause lysis

67
Q

What cells are found in alveoli?

A

Type I pneumocytes, simple squamous epithelium, gas exchange
Type II pneumocytes, simple cuboidal epithelium, produce surfactant
Macrophages for protection

68
Q

Describe the Bohr effect.

A

describes the relationship between blood pH and O2 affinity for Hb
decreased pH= O2 wants to unload, less affinity/weaker bond
increased pH= O2 does not want to unload, more affinity/stronger bond

69
Q

What are surface barriers and how do they function in immunity?

A

Skin and mucous membranes
Skin has KSSE and dendritic cells. Sweat and sebum create an acidic environment that is antibacterial and create antibodies (IgA)
Mucous membranes trap pathogens in mucus and cilia push it out. Low pH in vagina and stomach.

70
Q

What is the function of a T cell receptor?

A

To bind to a very specific antigen

71
Q

What structures are found in the conducting zone and respiratory zone?

A

Conducting zone: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, terminal bronchioles

Respiratory zone: respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, alveolar sac, alveolus

72
Q

What two phases are involved in pulmonary ventilation?

A

Inspiration and Expiration

73
Q

What is lymph?

A

fluid inside lymp vessels. Contains water, fats, proteins, cells, bacteria, viruses, ions, nutrients, gases, wastes, and white blood cells

74
Q

Describe the functions of the innate immune system.

A

Immune defenses we are born with.
First and second line of defense.

75
Q

What are primary and secondary lymphoid organs?

A

Primary- red bone marrow and thymus
Secondary- Lymph nodes, lymph follicles, appendix, spleen,

76
Q

Where do T cells gain immunocompetence and where do they meet their specific antigen?

A

Thymus
Meet in secondary lymph tissues

77
Q

How do airway size, alveolar surface tension, and lung compliance affect resistance and ventilation?

A

Airflow is inversely proportional to resistance.
Size of airways do not add much resistance to airflow
alveolar surface tension- increase tension = increase resistance
decrease in compliance reduces ventilation

78
Q

Why are memory T cells important?

A

Allow the immune system to respond faster, stronger, and longer the next time the antigen is found.

79
Q

How can activated B cells act as antigen presenting cells?

A
  1. antigen binds to IgD antibody on B cell surface.
  2. B cell endocytosis of IgD-antigen complex
  3. B cell presents antigen on MHC 2 receptor
  4. Effector TH binds to antigen on MHC 2 with CD4 protein.
80
Q

How are phagocytic cells mobilized in an inflammatory response?

A
  1. Leukocytosis- release of chemicals that tells red bone marrow to produce more leucocytes. Neutrophils show up first and increase there numbers over a few hours
  2. margination- neutrophils stick to the walls of the capillaries in the damaged area (cell adhesion molecules)
  3. diapedisis- neutrophils leave blood and enter tissue space
  4. chemotaxis- neutrophils follow chemical trail to injured area
81
Q

How are the airways in the lungs innervated?

A

A combination of parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation and the phrenic nerve.
parasymp=bronchoconstriction
symp= bronchodilation

82
Q

Where do you find central and peripheral chemoreceptors and what is their function?

A

Central- near the brain stem, monitor H+ concentration in CSF related to CO2 in the blood.
Peripheral- in aorta arch and carotid bodies. Monitors CO2, O2, and pH.

83
Q

Describe Dalton’s law and Henry’s law.

A

Dalton’s Law- total pressure in a gas mixture is the sum of the individual gas pressures

Henry’s Law- gas mixtures in contact with liquid, each gas will dissolve in liquid in proportion to it’s partial pressure and solubility

CO2 20x more soluble than O2

84
Q

Describe the partial pressure gradients that allow O2 and CO2 to be exchanged during external and internal respiration.

A

External respiration: PO2 in blood = 40 mg, outside PO2= 104 mmHg
PCO2 in blood = 45 mmHg, outside PCO2= 40mmHg

Internal respiration:
PO2 in blood = 100mg PO2 in tissues=40 mmHg
PCO2 in blood= 40 mmHg, in tissues 45 mmHg

85
Q

What type of epithelium is found in each part of the respiratory system?

A

olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells in conducting zone
simple squamous in the respiratory zone
nonkeratinized stratified squamous in pharyx

86
Q

What receptors and control centers are involved when the stimulus is increased/decreased CO2, decreased pH, or decreased O2? How is ventilation altered in response to each stimulus?

A

Both chemoreceptors monitor the increase/decrease CO2. 70% central
Peripheral monitors decreased pH and decreased O2.
Increased CO2/decrease O2=hyperventilation or forced breath (50-60mmHg CO2)
Decrease CO2/ Increase O2= hypoventilation
Decrease pH= hyperventilation

87
Q

Describe the lobes and bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs.

A

Left, superior and inferior
Right, superior, middle, inferior

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