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Human Physiology > Human Phys exam 1 > Flashcards

Human Phys exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is physiology?

A

Study of biological function (normally in homeostasis)

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2
Q

What is pathophysiology?

A

Study of diseased states of the body (abnormal)
- When something in the body is not in homeostasis

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3
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

State of dynamic constancy in the internal environment
- Different for each variable of the body

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4
Q

What are homeostatic control systems

A

Negative and positive feedback
Set points

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5
Q

What are set points?

A

Value for which a variable operates optimally

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6
Q

What is dynamic constancy?

A

Correction in the opposite direction o deviation - move it back to set point.
Continuous process, always fine adjustments to stay in homeostasis

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7
Q

What is negative feedback loop?

A
  1. Sensors.
  2. Integrating center
  3. Effector
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8
Q

What are sensors?

A

In the body to detect change and send information to the integrating center

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9
Q

What is integrating center?

A

Asses change around a set point

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10
Q

What is an effector?

A

Which can make the appropriate adjustments to counter the change from the set-point

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11
Q

What is positive feedback?

A
  1. Stimulus causes deviation from set point
  2. Cellular response amplifies deviation
  3. Further deviation leads to additional cellular response
  4. and so on and so on until stimulus stops
    (end product stimulates process)
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12
Q

Positive Feedback equals what?

A

Arrow

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13
Q

Negative Feedback equals what?

A

Loop

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14
Q

What does intrinsically mean?

A

Cells within the organ sense a change and signal to neighboring cells to respond appropriately

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15
Q

What does extrinsically mean?

A

The brain (or other organs) regulate(s) an organ using the endocrine or nervous systems

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16
Q

What are the 4 main groups of cells?

A
  1. Muscle cells
  2. Neurons
  3. Epithelial cells
  4. Connective tissue cells
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17
Q

Describe muscle cells and tissue.

A

-Generate mechanical force

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18
Q

What are the three types of mechanical force and are the voluntary or involuntary?

A

Skeletal = voluntary
Cardiac = involuntary
smooth = involuntary (GI Tract)

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19
Q

Describe neurons and nervous tissue.

A

Neuron: conduct electrical signals (impulses) to other cells.
Make up the:
-Brain
-Spinal cord
-Nerves

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20
Q

Describe Epithelial cells and tissue.

A

-Linings and coverings of organs and cavities
-Specialized for: secretion, absorption (single layered) and protection (double layered)
-Shape and type of epithelial cell vary per location in the body
-structure and function may differ on one side of the cell compare to the other (apical vs basal)

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21
Q

describe connective cell and tissue.

A

Connect, support and anchor structures to the body:
-bone
-cartilage
-blood
-connective tissue proper (protein/collagen fibers and adipose tissue)

-structure: extracellular or connective tissue matrix lies btw all the types of connective cells

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22
Q

describe body fluids.

A

Watery solution of dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and waste
Two components
-intra and extra cellular

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23
Q

What are intracellular fluids?

A

(Cytosol) 65%. of all fluids

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24
Q

What are extracellular fluids?

A

Plasma in the blood and intestinal fluid (between cells -out of bloodstream and pancreas)

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25
Q

Why is binding so important?

A

Binding of molecules to receptors causes changes in cells and serves in transporting, communicating and affecting the overall function of organs.

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26
Q

What are examples of molecules binding?

A

-Hormones
-Enzymes
-Neurotransmitters
-Gases

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27
Q

What are some examples of binding?

A

-Opening a channel in the membrane
-Changing shape of a channel elsewhere in the membrane
-Blocking actions of other molecules

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28
Q

What’s a ligand?

A

Any molecule or ion that is bound to a protein by one. of the following forces:
-Electrical attractions
-Weaker attractions due to hydrophobic forces between non polar regions on the two molecules

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29
Q

The region of a protein in which the ligand binds is known as an…

A

Active site
-multiple ligands move around at the same time
-when two ligand arrive at an active site they can both fit, a competition begins

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30
Q

When a ligand binds to a protein the proteins specific function is…

A

Inhibited or activated

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31
Q

What is competition in regards to molecular binding?

A

The presence of multiple ligands able to bind to the same site

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32
Q

What’s an agonist?

A

Triggers response to activate or increase an action. Often mimics a naturally produced ligand
Ex: Decongestant - mimic epinephrine but on a subtype receptor of epi

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33
Q

What’s an antagonist?

A

Molecules that do not activate as the natural ligand would. Often occupies the site blocking the natural ligand and its effect
Ex: Antihistamine - a histamine blocker by occupying those binding sites

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34
Q

In order to bind properly proteins must have the right…

A

Conformational shape

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35
Q

The ____ _____ determines the type of chemical that is bound.

A

Active site

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36
Q

Some ligands only bind to one ligand while others can bind to ____ ____.

A

Many ligands

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37
Q

Increasing the specific molecular shape and active site increases the …

A

Chemical specificity

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38
Q

Ligand =

A

Substrate

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39
Q

Protein =

A

Enzyme

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40
Q

Enzymes can be defines as

A

Protein catalysts

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41
Q

Give background information on enzymes.

A

-Enzymes increase the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy of the reaction
-enzyme itself is unchanged: a single catalyst molecule can act over and over again to catalyze many reactions

-enzymes end in ase

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42
Q

The strength of ligand-protein binding is a property of the binding site known as what?

A

Affinity

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43
Q

Define affinity.

A

-The affinity of a binding site for a ligand determines how likely it is that a bound ligand will leave the protein surface and return to its unbound state.

-Specificity depends only on shape of binding site, affinity depends on the strength of attraction in binding site of protein to ligand.

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44
Q

What is saturation?

A

The fraction of total actives sites that are occupied at any given time.

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45
Q

The percent saturation depends on:

A

The concentration ligand and the affinity

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46
Q

How are enzymes involved in reactions that occur in the body?

A

-Chemical reactions involve breaking of chemical bonds in reactants and the making of a new chemical bond in the products

-when this is happening energy is added or released and doesn’t disappear

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47
Q

What are the determinants of chemical reaction rates?

A
  1. Reactant concentration (high concentration = faster reaction)
  2. Activation energy (higher the AE slower the reaction)
  3. Temperature (high temp = faster rxn unless it is at the denaturing temp)
  4. Catalyst (presence of catalysts - faster rxn)
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48
Q

What are the “things” involved in simple diffusion?

A

molecules, ions, and water

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49
Q

What is carrier mediated transport?

A

Facilitated diffusion and active diffusion.

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50
Q

What is diffusion?

A

The random movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration towards one of lower concentration

51
Q

What determines movement of molecules? (diffusion)

A

-Concentration difference
-Distances beyond 100um will mean the diffusion time is too long to be effective.

Ex: Moving O2 from lungs to blood crosses epithelial cells 1-2 um thick

52
Q

Molecules are always …

A

Moving and collidingq

53
Q

Diffusion rate is affected by what?

A

Concentration difference (gradient)
Membrane permeability to each molecule
Temperature
Surface area

54
Q

Neural membrane at rest is more permeable to ___ than to _____

A

K+ , NA+

55
Q

What does semipermeable mean?

A

Some materials allowed through, others not

56
Q

How do non polar molecules diffuse?

A

Rapidly
-Lipophilic (lipid-loving) substances move through easily
Ex. Steroid hormones, O2, CO2, and fatty acids

57
Q

How do polar molecules and hydrophilic molecules diffuse?

A

Do not diffuse readily through the membranes without the help of special molecules and structures

58
Q

What are ions?

A

Charged particles

59
Q

A simple artificial lipid bilayer is practically ____ to ions

A

Impermeable

60
Q

What is an ion channel?

A

-Integral membrane proteins form channels through which ions can freely diffuse according to their gradient
-These small channels can be specific and only allow the diffusion of certain ions at certain times

61
Q

What is the fastest way to administer drugs?

A

IV

62
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The net diffusion of water across a membrane

63
Q

What are aquaporins?

A

PASSIVE
-Movement of water facilitated by channel proteins called aquaporins
-Water may get stuck in hydrophobic fatty acids without these

64
Q

Why do kidneys have aquaporins?

A

For their role in regulation of plasma
Kidneys have aquamarines in epithelial cells
call also insert more aquaporins or remove them

65
Q

Explain osmosis

A

A difference in concentration of solutes exists on either side of the membrane
Membranes must be impermeable to solute making the water move
The net movement of water is from the side with more water (diluted, low solute) to the side with less water (concentrated, high solute)
Water will move faster with a high concentration

66
Q

What does diluted indicate?

A

More water, less solute

67
Q

What dose concentrated indicate?

A

Less water, more solute

68
Q

What is molarity (1M)

A

A compound is measured as its molecular weight in grams
moles solute / 1L solution.

69
Q

Give examples of molarity.

A

-Glucose and NaCl each weigh different grams, each dissolved in 1 L water separately
- Glucose has 180 grams dissolved in 1L water, NaCl has 58.5 grams dissolved in 1L water. There is more water used to make the 1 molar solution of NaCl.

70
Q

What should you consider before administering drugs?

A

Dosage, Allergies, and side effects

71
Q

What is osmolality?

A

Number of solutes in plasma

72
Q

What is tonicity?

A

The effect of solution on osmotic movement

73
Q

What is isotonic?

A

Solutions have the same concentration of nonpenetrating solutes as normal plasma
(balanced)

74
Q

Plasma cells have the same osmolity as a ____ glucose or ___ NaCl

A

0.3m 0.15m

75
Q

What does normal saline consist of?

A

0.9g NaCl/100mL water

76
Q

What does 5% dextrose consist of?

A

5g Glucose/100mL water

77
Q

What does hypo-osmotic mean?

A

Solutions have lower solute concentration, lower osmolality. These solutions are also hypotonic and the cell will lyse (swell)

78
Q

What does hyper-osmotic mean?

A

Solutions have a higher concentration than the cell. These solutions are also called hypertonic and cause the cell to crenate (Shrink).

79
Q

Mediated transport vs transport/carrier proteins

A

Passive
conformational changes in transport proteins each time a molecule crosses
Makes the process much slower and moves fewer ions compared to simple diffusion

80
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Passive
No energy is required, channel is specific and movements are diffusional

81
Q

Examples of facilitated diffusion

A

glucose
-polar molecule that needs a transporter

82
Q

T/F: facilitated diffusion moves molecules from high to low concentration?

A

True

83
Q

T/F: Low to high could also be described as moving with the gradient or down the gradient?

A

False

84
Q

T/F: lyse is to swell as crenate is to shrink?

A

True

85
Q

Water channel is always …

A

Open

86
Q

Mediated transport: active transport

A

Involves the use of ATP to pump a molecule against its gradient
Molecule specific and limited by saturation and the ratee of conformational change

87
Q

Active transport

A

Moves molecules against their concentration gradient
Low-High

88
Q

What are the two types of active transport?

A

Primary and Secondary

89
Q

What is primary Active transport?

A

Uses ATP pump is an enzyme

90
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

Uses electrochemical gradient across membrane

91
Q

Sodium-potassium pump (primary active transport

A
  • Na/K ATPase pump
  • Moves 3 sodium out 2 potassium in
  • Both work against concentration gradient
  • Maintains distribution of high intracellular K and low Na
  • Found in every cell
  • shape of transporter changes
92
Q

Why is the sodium potassium pump necessary?

A

Na+ gradient (Na is used in secondary transport)
Prevents constant osmosis
Maintains membrane potential - counter K leaks

93
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A
  • The movement of a molecule with its electrochemical gradient is coupled with the movement of a second molecule (ex Na and glucose)
  • Require the proteins to have two binding sites (one for each molecule)
  • Transported molecules can be moved in the same or opposite directions ( cotransport =. same, counter transport = opposite)
  • Primary active transport will move Na+ back out of the cell maintaining the gradient
94
Q

Examples of secondary active transport

A

Respiratory or renal image (countertransport)

95
Q

Describe membrane potential (Em)

A

An unequal distribution of changes across the membrane, leaving the inside cell negatively charged compared to the outside

96
Q

Membrane potential expanded …

A

Permeability (higher K+)
Na/K pump
Negative molecules in cell (anions that cannot penetrate the membrane)

97
Q

At rest our cells will have a ____ attraction coming in

A

Positive

98
Q

Membrane potential of K+

A
  • K+ accumulates at higher concentration in the cell
  • the Na/K pumps actively bring in K+
  • The membrane is very permeable to K+
  • Negative anions inside the cell attract cations outside the cell
99
Q

Membrane potential can be measured in what?

A

Volts

100
Q

Membrane potential of Na+

A
  • sodium is important for establishing membrane potential
  • To keep so much sodium out, the inside would have to be positive to repel sodium ions
  • The membrane is less permeable to Na so the actual membrane potential is closer to that of the more permeable K+
101
Q

K membrane potential is what?

A

-90mV

102
Q

Na membrane potential is what?

A

66mV

103
Q

Resting potential range is what?

A

-65mV to -85mV

104
Q

Neuron membrane potential is what?

A

-70mV

105
Q

What is used to calculate equilibrium potentials?

A

Nernst Equations

106
Q

What 4 ions contribute the most to membrane potential?

A

K+
Na+
Cl-
Ca2+

107
Q

The equilibrium has a negative value when the concentration inside the cell is _____ that outside the cell

A

Greater

108
Q

K membrane potential

A

Inside of the cell is negative and it would take 90mV to prevent diffusion of k out of the cell

109
Q

Na membrane potential

A

Inside of the cell is positive and it would take 66mV to prevent diffusion of na into the cell

110
Q

How does a cell move away from resting potential?

A

Permeability and concentration

111
Q

What do changes in permeability cause?

A

A change in permeability of the membrane for any ion will change the resting potential.
ex when a neuron sends an impulse it changes the permeability of na driving the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for na

112
Q

What does changes in concentration cause?

A

A change in the concentration of any ion inside or outside will change the resting potential

113
Q

Paracrine

A

cell to cell
localized

114
Q

Synaptic

A

Neurons have a synapse communication they must cross

115
Q

Endocrine

A

Hormones regulate via the blood stream

116
Q

Receptor proteins

A

Targets that are specific to a molecule. targets may be on the cell membrane or inside the cell

117
Q

Second messenger

A

Regulatory molecules may bind to receptors on the cell membrane but then require a second action to carry out the function of the binding
longer process
two steps

118
Q

Secondary messengers examples

A

cAMP
norepinephrine binds at receptor in membrane
G-proteins activate adenylate cyclase enzyme in membrane to produce cAMP
cAMP activates protein kinase
Protein kinase activated carious out the action intended opening the ion channel

119
Q

Na/K pump is

A

Primary

120
Q

H+/K+ pump is

A

primary

121
Q

Na/Glucose is

A

co-transport

122
Q

K+ and Cl- is

A

co transport

123
Q

Ca+ and Na+ is

A

counter transport

124
Q

Cl- and HCO3- is

A

Counter transport

Human Physiology (7 decks)

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