chapter 3

Question 1

Body Changes (part 1)
body size

Answer 1

Body size

Average weight
–At birth: 7 pounds (3.2 kilograms)
–At 24 months: 28 pounds (13 kilograms)

Average length
–At birth: 20 inches
–At 24 months: 34 inches

These numbers are norms or average measurements; failure to thrive (if an infants percentile rank falls to low

Question 2

significant decrease or increase in weight if height stays the same signifies

Answer 2

a problem

Question 3

Sleep specifics vary because of biology, caregiving, and culture.

Answer 3

Sleep specifics vary because of biology, caregiving, and culture.
-Newborns sleep about -15–17 hours a day.
-By 12 months, norm is 12 to 13 hours daily.
-Newborns’ sleep is primarily active sleep.
-Pain disrupts sleep: colic, hunger.

Question 4

Where should babies sleep?

Answer 4

Where should babies sleep?
-U.S. middle class infants sleep separated from parents; sleeping patterns may be changing.

Decision to co-sleep or bed-share linked to culture, age of infant, mother’s education level, depressive state, and father involvement.
–Asian, African, and Latin American infants co-sleep or bed-share.
–Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (linked to cosleeping)

Question 5

Awake at Night
Why the disparity between Asian and non-Asian rates of co-sleeping?

Answer 5

Why the disparity between Asian and non-Asian rates of co-sleeping?

-It may be that Western parents use a variety of gadgets and objects—monitors, night-lights, pacifiers, cuddle cloths, sound machines—to accomplish some of what Asian parents do by having their infant next to them.

Question 6

Prenatal and postnatal brain growth (measured by head circumference) is crucial for later ___

-Head-sparing

Answer 6

Prenatal and postnatal brain growth (measured by head circumference) is crucial for later cognition. (brain grows more rapidly than any other organ)

-Head-sparing is a biological mechanism that protects brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth.
-Brain is the last part of body to be damaged by malnutrition.
-infant genes propel and protect this brain growth

Question 7

Prefrontal cortex

Answer 7

Area of the cortex at the very front of the brain that specializes in anticipation, planning, and impulse control

Question 8

Limbic system

Answer 8

Parts of brain that interact to produce emotions, including amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus. Many other parts of brain also are involved with emotions.

Question 9

Amygdala

Answer 9

Tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.

Question 10

Hippocampus

Answer 10

Brain structure that is a central processor of memory, especially memory for locations.

Question 11

Cortisol

Answer 11

Primary stress hormone; fluctuations in the body’s cortisol level affect human emotions.

Question 12

Pituitary

Answer 12

Gland in the brain that responds to a signal from the hypothalamus by producing many hormones, including those that regulate growth and that control other glands, among them the adrenal and sex glands.

Question 13

Harming the infant body and brain

Answer 13

Harming the infant body and brain

Necessary stimulation
–Babies need stimulation; severe lack of stimulation stunts brain. (sights, sounds, emotional expressions

Stress and the brain
–Too much of wrong stimulation has adverse effects.
–Shaken baby syndrome (abusive head trauma)
death or life long intellectual impairment

-intnese and frequent stress floods the brain with cortisol causing damage

Question 14

transient exuberance

Answer 14

rapid and temporary transient early dendrite growth
-exuberant overproduction of cells and connections followed by a several yearlong sculpting of pathways by massive elimination

Question 15

experience-expectant growth

Answer 15

some basic experiences are needed for the brain to grow

Question 16

experience-dependent growth

Answer 16

built in plasticity

Question 17

Face Lit Up; Brain, Too

Answer 17

-This young boy enjoys the EEG of his brain activity.
-Such research has found that babies respond to language long before they speak.
-Experiences of all sorts connect neurons and grow dendrites.

Question 18

Hearing

Answer 18

Hearing
Develops during the last trimester of pregnancy.
Most advanced of the newborn’s senses
Speech perception by four months after birth

-infants need to hear voices expectant to learn whatever language parents speak (dependent)

Question 19

Seeing

Answer 19

Seeing
-Least mature sense at birth
-Newborns focus between 4 and 30 inches away.
-Binocular vision between 2 and 4 months (coordinating both eyes to see one image)
-Experience and maturation of visual cortex improve shape recognition, visual scanning, and details.

Question 20

Tasting and smelling

Answer 20

Tasting and smelling
-Smell and taste function at birth and rapidly adapt to the social world.
-Foods of culture may aid survival.
-Adaptation occurs for both of these senses.

Question 21

Touch, pain and temp.

Answer 21

Touch
-Sense of touch is acute in infants.
-Although all newborns respond to being securely held, soon they prefer specific touches.
-Some touches may be experience-expectant for normal growth.

Pain and temperature
-Pain and temperature are often connected to touch.
-Pain is probably less intense than adult pain but not absent altogether.

Question 22

Gross motor skills
Sequence of emerging skills

Answer 22

Gross motor skills
-Every basic motor skill develops over the first two years of life.
-Course of development
—Cephalocaudal (head-down) and proximodistal (center-out) direction

Sequence of emerging skills
Sitting unsupported
Standing, holding on
Crawling (creeping)
Standing, not holding on
Walking well
Walking backward
Running
Jumping up

Question 23

Ever Wonder Why Parents of Toddlers Are Always Tired?

Answer 23

“In 1 hour of free play, the average toddler takes about 2,400 steps, travels the length of about 8 U.S. football fields, and falls 17 times”! (Adolph & Franchak, 2017)

Question 24

Fine motor skills

Sequence of emerging skills

Answer 24

Fine motor skills
-Physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers, such as drawing and picking up a coin
-Shaped by culture and opportunity

Sequence of emerging skills
Grasping rattle
Reaching to hold object
Thumb-and-finger grasping
Stacking two blocks
Imitating vertical line

Question 25

Infant brain has inborn readiness to learn.

Answer 25

Infant brain has inborn readiness to learn.

Gaze-following
–Caregiver gaze following instinctively without cues. (look at where caregiver is looking)

Early logic
–Infants have some innate logic.

Question 26

Infant memory implicit and explicit

Answer 26

Infant memory

Implicit memory
–Evident by 3 months, begins to stabilize by 9 months; lifelong (not verbal, memory from movement, emotions, thoughts)

Explicit memory
–Longer to emerge; language-dependent
–Rovee-Collier’s mobile kicking research findings (baby kicking toy while on their back, led to more kicking)

Question 27

Babies learn how to

Answer 27

Babies learn how to learn.
Implicit learning strategies are learned early in life.

-if they see someone try hard to accomplish something such as turning on a toy, they will try harder as well. If they see someone easily give up, they won’t try as hard

Question 28

Piaget’s sensorimotor intelligence

Answer 28

Piaget’s sensorimotor intelligence- cognition in first two years, learning is a circle.

-Senses and motor skills are raw materials for infant cognition.
-Interplay of sensation, perception, action, and cognition occurs in six stages, in three circular reactions.
-There is no beginning and no end to learning; experience leads to the next, which loops back.

Question 29

Primary circular reactions

Answer 29

Primary circular reactions: Circle within infant’s body
Stage one: stage of reflexes
Stage two: first acquired adaptations (stage of first habits)

-infants responses to its own body, keep sucking on thumb

Question 30

Secondary circular reactions:

Answer 30

Secondary circular reactions: Circle between baby and someone else; beyond infant’s body

-Stage three: making interesting sights last
-Stage four: new adaptation and anticipation (means to end)
Object permanence
–Before 8 months: no search
–At 18 months: A not B error
-By 2 years: full object permanence- objects continue to exist when they are not visible

-Did Piaget equate motor immaturity with intellectual inability?

-infants responses to objects and people, keep shaking rattle

Question 31

Tertiary circular reactions:

Answer 31

Tertiary circular reactions: Circle includes wider world information gathering from experiences

Stage five: new means through active experimentation; goal-directed, purposeful

Stage six: mental combinations; learning via imagination

-most creative first with action and then ideas, what else can I do?

Question 32

Universal sequence

Answer 32

Universal sequence
–Infants throughout the world follow the same sequence of language development.
–This development begins at birth and infants acquire much native language before uttering their first word.

-language begins with crying

Question 33

Language: The First Two Years (part 2)

Answer 33

–Listening and responding
–Babbling-repeat certain syllables
–Gestures-baby signs
–First words-hophrase- a single word that expresses an entire thought dada, dada?, dada!
–Cultural differences-some cultures speak to children often others don’t
–Naming explosion-language spurt, many early words are nouns
Putting words together-nouns

Question 34

Listening and responding
Babbling

Answer 34

Listening and responding
–Child-directed speech (motherese)
–High-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants; preference for voices over noises 


Babbling
-Extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins when babies are between 6 and 9 months old
-Gradual imitation of accents, cadence, consonants, and gestures in the environment
-Universal; even deaf babies babble


Question 35

Gestures
First words

Answer 35

Gestures
-Powerful means of communication; pointing
-Baby signing may enhance parent responsiveness for deaf and hearing babies.

First words
-Under
-At about 1 year, babies speak a few words; coincides with walking.
-Spoken vocabulary increases gradually (about one new words a week).
-First words become holophrases

Question 36

Cultural differences

-Early communication transcends linguistic boundaries.

Answer 36

Cultural differences

-Early communication transcends linguistic boundaries.
–Human baby noises are understood despite listener’s language or experience.
–Cultures and families vary in how much child-directed speech children hear.

Question 37

Naming explosion

Answer 37

Naming explosion
-Once vocabulary reaches about 50 expressed words, it builds rapidly, at a rate of 50 to 100 words per month.
-21-month-olds say twice as many words as 18-month-olds.
–Ratio of nouns to verbs vary from place to place.
–Meanings vary by language.
–Words that are difficult to say are simplified.

-language spurt

Question 38

Putting words together

Proficiency in grammar correlates with sentence length (MLU)

Answer 38

Putting words together
-Grammar includes all devices by which words communicate meaning.
-Sequence, prefixes, suffixes, intonation, volume, verb forms, pronouns, negations, prepositions, and articles

Proficiency in grammar correlates with sentence length (MLU)-is used to measure a Childs language progress at age 1
-suffix or prefix adds 1
-ground 1 MLU
-grounding 2 MLU

Question 39

Theory one:

Answer 39

Theory one: Infants need to be taught.

B. F. Skinner (1957) noticed that spontaneous babbling is usually reinforced.
-Parents are expert teachers, and other caregivers help them teach children to speak.
-Frequent repetition of words is instructive, especially when the words are linked to pleasures of daily life.
-Well-taught infants become well-spoken children.

-learning is acquired through association and reinforcement
-mom smiles when baby babbles encouraging them
-infant learn language faster when you speak to them often

Question 40

-Learning the first 50 words is a
-Researchers found that half of the infants of highly responsive mothers
-The infants of less responsive mothers (bottom 10 percent)

Answer 40

-Learning the first 50 words is a milestone in early language acquisition, as it predicts the arrival of the naming explosion and the multiword sentence a few weeks later.
-Researchers found that half of the infants of highly responsive mothers (top 10 percent) reached this milestone at 15 months.
-The infants of less responsive mothers (bottom 10 percent) lagged significantly behind, with half of them at the 50-word level at 21 months.

Question 41

Theory two:

Answer 41

Theory two: Social impulses fosters infant language. (infants seek to master words and grammar to join social world)

-Infants communicate because humans have evolved as social beings.
-Each culture has practices that further social interaction, including talking.
-Social impulses, not explicit teaching, lead infants to learn language; screen time during infancy debate (word explosions happen universally no matter what) (it is better wen parents teach, because it reinforces babies)

Question 42

theory three

Answer 42

Theory three: Infants teach themselves.
–Language learning is innate; adults need not teach it, nor is it a by-product of social interaction.

Chomsky-language learning is genetically programmed
-Language is too complex to be mastered through step-by-step conditioning.
–Language acquisition device (LAD) (allows children to derive the rules of grammar quickly and effectively from the speech they hear everyday)
–Mean length utterance
-Experience expectant

Question 43

All perspectives offer insight into language acquisition.
Neuroscience

Answer 43

All perspectives offer insight into language acquisition.
-Multiple attentional, social, and linguistic cues contribute to early language.
-Different elements of the language apparatus may have evolved in different ways.

Neuroscience
-Language arises from many brain regions, with contributions for hundreds of genes and areas.
-Language is interrelated and complex.

Question 44

Survival

Answer 44

96 percent of all newborns survive; varies by nations

Infant comparisons may not recognize mode of infant care.

Question 45

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

Answer 45

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
–Until mid-1990s, tens of thousands of SIDS death in North America and England
–Most deaths were sleeping position-related
–Back to Sleep program cut SIDS rate dramatically

Other risks
Low birthweight
Winter
Gender
Exposure to cigarette smoke
Soft blankets or pillows
Bed-sharing
Abnormalities in brain stem, heart, mitochondria, or microbiome

Question 46

Immunization

Answer 46

Immunization
Overview

-Occurs in two ways: illness recovery or vaccination
-Primes the body’s immune system to resist a particular disease.
-Reduces but does not eliminate the disease; careful testing required to ensure not severe side effects
-Currently vaccines are recommended for 14 serious childhood diseases

Question 47

Herd immunity
Anti-vax sentiments

Answer 47

Herd immunity= 95%
–Vaccinated person stops transmission. to more vulnerable people
–If almost all people in community are immunized, no one dies of that disease.
Anti-vax sentiments
–Worry about potential vaccine side effects
–Lower income may prohibit regular pediatric visits
–Inaccurate information about autism and immunization
–Personal belief and religious exemptions

Question 48

Nutrition: Breast-feeding
–For every infant disease (including SIDS), breast-feeding
-Breast-fed babies are less likely to develop
-As the infant gets older, the composition of breast milk
–Formula is advised for medical reasons in

Answer 48

Nutrition: Breast-feeding
–For every infant disease (including SIDS), breast-feeding reduces risk and malnutrition increases it, stunting growth of body and brain.
–Breast-fed babies are less likely to develop allergies, asthma, obesity, and heart disease.
–As the infant gets older, the composition of breast milk adjusts to the baby’s changing nutritional needs.
–Formula is advised for medical reasons in unusual cases. when mom is on drugs

Question 49

Malnutrition
Protein-calorie malnutrition
Stunting
Wasting

Answer 49

Malnutrition

Protein-calorie malnutrition
–Condition in which a person does not consume sufficient food of any kind that can result in several illnesses, severe weight loss, and even death

Stunting
–Failure of children to grow to a normal height for their age due to severe and chronic malnutrition

Wasting
–Tendency for children to be severely underweight for their age as a result of malnutrition

Question 50

Effects of chronic malnutrition on infants and children

Answer 50

Effects of chronic malnutrition on infants and children
-Learning suffers.
-Disease is caused.
–Marasmus; kwashiorkor
-Other diseases become more deadly.

Prevention
–Stopping malnutrition before it starts: prenatal nutrition, breast-feeding, supplements
–Educating and supporting mothers

Question 51

marasmus
kwashiorkor

Answer 51

growth slows down, hair becomes thin, skin is splotchy, face legs and abdomen swells

body tissues wastes away