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psych/soc correct deck > Ch. 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language > Flashcards

Ch. 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards

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1
Q

defn: cognition

A

how our brains process and react to information from the world

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2
Q

defn: dual coding-theory

A

both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information

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3
Q

defn: the four key components of the information processing model

A
  1. thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
  2. stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (not responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making
  3. decisions make in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (situational modification)
  4. problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
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4
Q

defn: cognitive development

A

the development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the life span

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5
Q

what are the Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

A
  1. sensorimotor
  2. preoperational
  3. concrete operational
  4. formal operational
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6
Q

defn: schema

A

a concept, behavior, or sequence of events

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7
Q

defn and components: adaptation

A

how new information is processed

assimilation and accommodation

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8
Q

defn: assimilation (cognitive development)

A

the process of classifying new information into existing schemata

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9
Q

defn: accommodation

A

the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new info

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10
Q

defn, char, age: sensorimotor stage

A

Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development

age: birth - 2 years old

  1. manipulate environment to meet physical needs
  2. coordinate sensory input with motor actions
  3. circular reactions
  4. objective permanence
  5. representational thought

primary circular reactions: repetitions of body movements that orig. occurred by change

secondary circular reactions: manipulation is focused on something outside the body

object permanence: objects continue to exist even when out of view

marks the beginning of representational thought: create mental representations of external objects and events

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11
Q

defn, char, age: preoperational stage

A

Piaget’s 2nd stage of cognitive development

2-7 years old

  1. symbolic thinking
  2. egocentrism
  3. inability to grasp conservation
  4. centration

symbolic thinking: the ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination

egocentrism: the inability to imagine what another person may think or feel

conservation: a physical amount remains the same even if there is a change in shape or look

centration: the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon while ignoring other important elements

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12
Q

defn, char, age: concrete operational stage

A

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development

7-11 years old

  1. conservation
  2. others’ perspectives (loss of egocentrism)
  3. logical thought with concrete objects and directly available information
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13
Q

defn, char, age: formal operational stage

A

Piaget’s fourth stage of cognitive development

11 years old +

  1. abstract thinking
  2. problem solving
  3. hypothetical reasoning

hypothetical reasoning: the ability to mentally manipulate variables in a number of ways

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14
Q

defn: fluid intelligence

A

solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods

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15
Q

defn: crystallized intelligence

A

solving problems using acquired knowledge (often procedural)

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16
Q

What is the relationship of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence with age?

A

Fluid intelligence: peaks in early adulthood, declines with age

Crystallized intelligence: peaks in middle adulthood, stable with age

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17
Q

defn: activities of daily living

A

eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, ambulation

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18
Q

defn, char, and cause: dementia

A

disorders and conditions characterized by a general loss of cognitive function

begins with impaired memory, progresses to impaired judgement and confusion; personality changes

most common cause: Alzheimer’s

also common: vascular dementia (high blood pressure and microscopic brain clots)

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19
Q

What other conditions can impact cognition?

A
  1. parenting style
  2. Down syndrome
  3. Fragile X syndrome
  4. fetal alcohol syndrome
  5. brain infections
  6. birth complications
  7. shaken baby syndrome
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20
Q

defn: delirium

A

rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes (nonphysiological)

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21
Q

defn: mental set

A

the tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

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22
Q

defn: functional fixedness

A

the inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

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23
Q

what are the four types of problem solving?

A
  1. trial-and-error
  2. algorithms
  3. deductive reasoning
  4. inductive reasoning
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24
Q

defn: algorithm

A

a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem

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25
Q

defn and aka: deductive reasoning

A

aka: top-down reasoning

starts from a set of general rules, draws conclusions from the info given

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26
Q

defn and aka: inductive reasoning

A

aka: bottom-up reasoning

create a theory via generalizations
starts with specific instances and draws a conclsuion from them

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27
Q

what are the four types of tools we use for decision making?

A
  1. heuristics
  2. biases
  3. intuition
  4. emotion
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28
Q

defn and aka: heuristics

A

simplified principles used to make decisions

aka: rules of thumb

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29
Q

defn: availability heuristic

A

we based the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind

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30
Q

defn: representativeness heuristic

A

categorizing items based on whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category

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31
Q

defn: base rate fallacy

A

using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info

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32
Q

defn: disconfirmation principle

A

the evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work

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33
Q

defn: confirmation bias

A

the tendency to focus on info that fits your beliefs and reject info that goes against them

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34
Q

defn: overconfidence

A

the tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible

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35
Q

defn: hindsight bias

A

the tendency to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened

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36
Q

defn: belief perserverance

A

the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

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37
Q

what are the four concepts that impede a person’s analysis of available evidence?

A
  1. confirmation bias
  2. overconfidence
  3. hindsight bias
  4. belief perserverance
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38
Q

what is the recognition-primed decision model?

A

it’s basically intuition!

the brain sorts through a wide variety of info to match a pattern

experience helps this!

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39
Q

what are Gardner’s 8 defined types of intelligence?

A
  1. Linguistic
  2. Logical-mathematical
  3. Musical
  4. Visual-spatial
  5. Bodily-kinesthetic
  6. Interpersonal
  7. Intrapersonal
  8. Naturalist
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40
Q

what are the types of intelligence in Sternberg’s triarchic theory? describe them.

A
  1. analytical intelligence (evaluate and reason)
  2. creative intelligence (solve problems using novel methods)
  3. practical intelligence (dealing with everyday problems at home or work)
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41
Q

what are the four components of emotional intelligence?

A
  1. express and perceive emotions of ourself and others
  2. comprehend and analyze our emotions
  3. regulate our emotions
  4. awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions
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42
Q

defn: g factor

A

general intelligence factor

performance on different cognitive tasks is often positively correlated (indicating an underlying factor playing a role)

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43
Q

defn: consciousness

A

one’s level of awareness of the world and one’s own existence within that world

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44
Q

what are the 4 states of consciousness?

A
  1. alertness
  2. sleep
  3. dreaming
  4. altered states
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45
Q

defn: physiological arousal

A

increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, cortisol etc.

we exp. a certain level while alert

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46
Q

defn, func, and injury: reticular formation

A

neural structure in the brainstem

communicates with fibers from the prefrontal cortex to keep the cortex awake and alert

injury: coma

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47
Q

what are the 4 EEG patterns correlated with different wake and sleep stages?

A
  1. beta
  2. alpha
  3. theta
  4. delta
  5. REM
48
Q

char and sleep stage: beta waves

A

high frequency

alert, attending to mental task that requires concentration

occur when neurons are randomly firing

49
Q

char and sleep stage: alpha waves

A

awake, but relaxing with our eyes closed

slower and more synchronized than beta waves

50
Q

char and sleep stage: theta waves

A

irregular waveforms, slow frequency, high voltage

sleep stage 1

51
Q

EEG results during: sleep stage 2

A

theta waves + sleep spindles (bursts of high-freq waves) + K complexes (singular high-amplitude waves)

52
Q

char and sleep stage: delta waves

A

sleep stage 3 (slow-wave sleep (SWS))

low-frequency, high voltage

53
Q

char: sleep stage 3

A
  1. very difficult to wake someone
  2. cognitive recovery
  3. memory consolidation
  4. increased growth hormone rlease
54
Q

what stages of sleep fall under NREM? what is NREM?

A

non-rapid eye movement sleep

stage 1 - 3

55
Q

defn, char, timeline, aka: REM

A

rapid eye movement sleep

between cycles of NREM stages

arousal levels reach that of wake, but muscles are paralyzed

aka: paradoxical sleep (heart rate, breathing, EEG mimic wake, but you are still asleep)

  1. dreaming
  2. memory consolidation
56
Q

what 2 hormones have a role in sleep-wake cycles? how? + mnemonic

A
  1. MELatonin (MELLows you out) –> decreasing light can cause its release
  2. cortiSOL (helps you get up with the SOL/sun) –> slowly releases during early morning bc of increasing light and subsequent hormone pathway
57
Q

during what sleep stage does dreaming mostly occur?

A

REM

58
Q

what are the three theories of dreaming? describe them.

A
  1. activation-synthesis theory (dreams caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry)
  2. problem solving theory (dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping)
  3. cognitive process dream theory (dreams are the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness)
59
Q

defn: dyssomnias + 3 examples

A

disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep

insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea

60
Q

defn + 2 examples: parasomnias

A

abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep

night terrors, sleepwalking

61
Q

what stage do most sleep-wake disorders occur during?

A

NREM sleep

62
Q

defn: cataplexy

A

a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM during waking hours, usually emotionally triggered

a symptom of nacrolepsy

63
Q

what are the three symptoms of narcolepsy?

A
  1. cataplexy
  2. sleep paralysis
  3. hypnagogic (while going to sleep) and hypnopompic (while awakening) hallucinations
64
Q

what is the difference between obstructive and central sleep apnea?

A

obstructive: physical blockage in pharynx or trachea prevents airflow

central: brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm

65
Q

during what sleep stage do night terrors and sleepwalking happen?

A

SWS (stage 3)

66
Q

defn: REM rebound

A

an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal which occurs when people are permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation

67
Q

provide 5 examples of what hypnosis can help with

A
  1. pain control
  2. psychological therapy
  3. memory enhancement
  4. weight loss
  5. smoking cessation
68
Q

what sleep stage and types of waves does meditation resemble on EEG?

A

sleep stage 1

theta and slow alpha waves

69
Q

what are the 4 diffrent groups of psychoactive/consciousness-altering drugs?

A
  1. depressants
  2. stimulants
  3. opiates
  4. hallucinogens
70
Q

func + ex: depressants

A

reduce nervous system activity = relaxation, reduced anxiety

alcohol
downers/sedatives (calm and induce sleep)

71
Q

effects of alcohol on the brain + outward behavior

A
  1. increases activity of the GABA receptor (causes hyperpolarization of the membrane –> causes generalized brain inhibition at the physiological level –> diminished arousal at moderate doses)
  2. lack of self-control (disinhibition) –> bc the centers of the brain that prevent inappropriate behavior are also depressed
  3. increases dopamine levels –> mild euphoria
  4. affects logical reasoning, motor skills, fatigue
  5. alcohol myopia (the inability to recognize consequences of actions)
72
Q

long term consequences of alcoholism

A
  1. cirrhosis and liver failure
  2. pancreatic damage
  3. gastric or duodenal ulcers
  4. gastrointestinal cancer
  5. brain disorders
73
Q

defn: Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

A

caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1)

characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills

a long term consequence of alchoholism

74
Q

defn + func + ex: sedatives

A

depress CNS activity = calm, relaxed, drowsy

barbiturates (anxiety-reducing and sleep, archaic)

benzodiazepines (modern, less prone to overdose)

increase GABA activity –> relaxation

highly addictive

75
Q

defn + func + ex: stimulants

A

cause an increase in nervous system arousal

each drug increases the frequency of action potentials, but by different mechanisms

amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy/MDMA

76
Q

func + effects: amphetamines

A

caused increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their reuptake –> increases arousal, reduces appetite, decreases need for sleep

increased HR, BP

euphoria, hypervigilance (on edge), anxiety, delusions of grandeur, paranoia

prolonged use: stroke, brain damage

withdrawal: depression, fatigue, irritability

77
Q

func + effects: cocaine

A

decreases reuptake of doapmine, norephinephrine, and serotonin

similar effects to amphetamines

also has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties

highly addictive

crack is the smokeable form

78
Q

func + effects + aka: opiates and opioids

A

types of narcotics

aka painkillers

OPIATES = naturally occurring forms (morphine, codeine)

OPIOIDS = semisynthetic derivatives (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin)

bind to opioid receptors in the PNS and CNS

act as endorphin agonists, cause decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria

overdose: respiratory suppression

79
Q

func + effects + class: heroin

A

an opioid

originally created as a substitute for morphine

is rapidly metabolized to morphine

80
Q

func + effects + ex: hallucinogens

A

cause introspection, distortions of reality and fantasy, and enhancement of sensory experiences

increased HR, BP, pupil dilation, sweating, increased body temp

LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, psilocybin mushrooms

complex interaction between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin

81
Q

effects + func: marijuana

A

active chemical = tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

acts on cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors which interact to create a high

inhibits GABA activity, indireclty increases dopamine activity (causing pleasure)

eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, increased appetite, low BP

pscyhological effects fall into stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen categories

82
Q

defn: mesolimbic reward pathway

A

highly related to drug addiction

one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain

includes the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the connection between them (the medial forebrain bundle MFB)

normally involved in motivation and emotional response

its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use

activated by all substances that produce pscyhological dependence, also by gambling and falling in love

83
Q

defn: attention

A

concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment ( sensorium)

84
Q

defn: selective attention

A

focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli

acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems

if a stimulus is attended to: it is passed through a filter and analyzed further

if the stimulus is not attended to: it is lost

NOT all-or-nothing

85
Q

defn: cocktail party phenomenon

A

selective attention is a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background

only if the stimuli are particularly important, do we shift our attention to them

you are at a party talking to a friend, and you hear your name across the room

86
Q

defn: dichotic listening tests

A

designed to test selective attention

listen to headphones with distinct auditory stimuli going to each ear

participants are then asked to pay attention to either or both stimuli, then asked to repeat out loud what they heard in the attended ear (shadowing)

participants must filter out information from the unattended ear

87
Q

defn: divided attention

A

the ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

88
Q

defn: controlled (effortful) vs. automatic processing

A

most new or complex tasks require undivided attention (utilize CONTROLLED processing)

familiar or routine actions can be performed with AUTOMATIC processing (permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention) –> does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change

89
Q

what are the five basic components of language?

A
  1. phonology
  2. morphology
  3. semantics
  4. syntax
  5. pragmatics
90
Q

defn: phonology

A

the actual sound of language

91
Q

defn: phoneme

A

speech sounds (about 40 in English)

92
Q

defn: morphology

A

the structure of words

93
Q

defn: morpheme

A

building blocks that compose words
each connotes a particular mening

94
Q

defn: semantics

A

the association of meaning with a word

95
Q

defn: syntax

A

how words are put together to form sentences

96
Q

defn: pragmatics

A

the dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge

97
Q

defn: prosody

A

the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

98
Q

what is the timeline of language acquisition?

A

9 - 12 mos: babbling
12 - 18 mos: one word per month
18 to 20 mos: “explosion of language” and combining words
2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words +)
5 years: language rules largely mastered

99
Q

defn: naming explosion

A

18 - 20 months

child quickly learns dozens of words and uses each word with varying inflection and gestures to convey a desired meaning

100
Q

defn: overextension

A

inappropriate application of a term to an object that bears cursory similarities to the term

(can happen during the naming explosion)

101
Q

defn: errors of growth

A

a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply

102
Q

defn and who: nativist (biological) theory

A

advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language

Chomsky

103
Q

defn: language acquisition device (LAD)

A

part of the nativist theory of language

the innate ability for language // a theoretical brain pathway that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

104
Q

defn: critical period for language acquisition

A

part of the nativist theory of language

between 2 yrs and puberty

if no language exposure occurs during this time, later training is ineffective

105
Q

defn: sensitive period

A

a time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

106
Q

defn and who: learning (behaviorist) theory

A

explains language acquisition by operant conditioning and reinforcement

B.F. Skinner

107
Q

defn: social interactionist theory

A

language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate and behave in a social manner

108
Q

what are the three theories of language development?

A
  1. nativist (biological) theory
  2. learning (behaviorist) theory
  3. social interactionist theory
109
Q

defn and aka: Whorfian hypothesis

A

aka: linguistic relativity hypothesis

our perception of reality (the way we think about the world) is determined by the content of language

LANGUAGE EFFECTS THE WAY WE THINK NOT VICE VERSA

think about how languages with more words for colors can process more subtleties in those colors

110
Q

what are the two brain areas responsible for speech production and language comprehension?

A

Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area (both in dominant hemisphere)

111
Q

loc and func: Broca’s area

A

loc: inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe

func: controls motor function of speech via motor cortex connections

112
Q

loc and func: Wernicke’s area

A

loc: superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe

func: language comprehension

113
Q

defn, loc, and func: arcuate fasciculus

A

connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s

a bundle of axons allowing for correct association btwn language comprehension and speech production

114
Q

defn: aphasia

A

deficity of language production or comprehension

115
Q

defn and aka: Broca’s aphasia

A

aka: expressive aphasia

  1. damage occurs to Broca’s area
  2. speech comprehension is intact
  3. reduced/absent ability to produce spoken language
116
Q

defn and aka: Wernicke’s aphasia

A

aka: receptive aphasia

  1. damage occurs to Wernicke’s area
  2. motor production and fluency of speech retained
  3. speech comprehension lost
117
Q

defn and cause: conduction aphasia

A

arcuate fasciculus is affected

  1. speech production and comprehension intact
  2. cannot repeat something that has been said bc connection lost

psych/soc correct deck (12 decks)

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