PR 2| WEEK 1-2

Question 1

refers to the overall strategy that a researcher uses to logically and coherently
integrate the various components of a study (Barrot, 2017).

Answer 1

RESEARCH DESIGN

Question 2

can help you clarify the methods or techniques in finding answers to your research questions and in collecting data (Baraceros, 2017).

Answer 2

RESEARCH DESIGN

Question 3

The appropriate choice of quantitative research design for your study is the initial step after conceptualizing your research topic (Baraceros,2017).

Answer 3

RESEARCH DESIGN

Question 4

uses statistical analysis and mathematical computations in order to generate a conclusion (Arcinas, 2016).

Answer 4

RESEARCH DESIGN

Question 5

4 ADVANTAGES of quantitative research designs ( Arcinas, 2016)

Answer 5

 verify results
 filter out external factors and produce unbiased results
 verify qualitative researches and narrow down possible results
 variables can easily be manipulated

Question 6

4 DISADVANTAGES of quantitative research designs (Arcinas, 2016)

Answer 6

 time consuming in data collection
 difficult and expensive to do
 requires statistical analysis
 very little room for uncertainty

Question 7

• most common design that observes and reports certain phenomenon or shows a picture of a group.
• describes the characteristics of the problem, phenomenon, situation, or group under study.
• answers the “what,” “when,” and “where” of a research problem. For this reason, it is popularly used in market research, awareness surveys, and opinion polls.
• no treatment/intervention (no manipulation happened) (Barrot, 2017).
• uses the demographic profile the respondents as basis of classifying the data.
  Common study designs:
• include comparative descriptive design
• cross-sectional
• longitudinal designs
  Statistical tool used:
• Mean, Median, Mode, and Percentage, Frequency
  Examples:
• The Role of Facebook in Combating Misinformation Online.
• Buying Power of Social Media Users in Online Marketing

Answer 7

Descriptive research design

Question 8

• seeks for connection between one variable and how it affects another variable but not a “cause-and-effect” relationship
• no manipulation of variables (Barrot,2017).
  Common study designs include:
• descriptive correlational designs
• predictive designs
  Statistical tools employed are inferential statistics such as:
• Spearman’s rho (Spearman’s r)
• Pearson product-moment correlation (Pearson’s r) (Baraceros, 2017).
  Examples:
• Linear relationship between height and basketball performance
• Association between exam performance and time spent revising

Answer 8

Correlational Research Design

Question 9

• aims to infer the causes of a phenomenon which have already occurred.
• no manipulation of variables and groups exposed to the presumed cause are compared to those who are not.
• looks at “after-the-fact” situation or scenariouses questionnaire (Barrot, 2017)
• employs Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test as the non-parametric statistical tool for the test of hypothesis

Answer 9

Causal-comparative research design (Ex post facto)

Question 10

• aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationships (Barrot, 2017)
• may or may not have a control group or subjects and subjects are not randomly assigned to groups (Baraceros, 2017)
• uses intact groups or already existing groups.
  common study designs include :
• pre and post-test designs
• post-test only designs
• interrupted time series designs
• non-equivalent designs (Cristobal & dela Cruz-Cristobal, 2017).
• The Mann-Whitney U test for ordinal or continuous groups for the hypothesis testing may be employed.

Answer 10

Quasi-experimental research design

Question 11

• aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships and randomly assign individual
• participants/subjects to the treatment and control groups (Barrot, 2017).
  common study designs include:
• pre-test-post-test control group designs
• post-test only control group designs
• Solomon four-group designs (Cristobal & dela Cruz-Cristobal, 2017).
  A test of hypothesis that employs parametric statistical tools such as:
• t-test for independent sample (unpaired t-test)
• One-way Anova
• It is bias-free selection that ensures objectivity of the results (Baraceros, 2017).

Answer 11

Experimental research design

Question 12

 The way in which we select a sample of individuals to be research participants is critical.
 How we select participants (random sampling) will determine the population to which we may
generalize our research findings.
 The procedure that we use for assigning participants to different treatment conditions (random
assignment) will determine whether bias exists in our treatment groups
(Are the groups equal on all known and unknown factors?).

Answer 12

sampling

Question 13

the process of selecting the subjects of the population to be included in the sample
A sample is a “smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units from population used to determine truths about that population (Field, 2005)

Answer 13

Sampling

Question 14

2 kinds of sampling

Answer 14

Probability Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling

Question 15

• refers to the selection of a sample from a population is based on the principle of randomization (each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected).
• each member of the population is given a chance of being included in the sampling
• Minimizes, if not eliminates selection bias.

Answer 15

Probability Sampling

Question 16

• is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection (members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner).
• involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection
• prone to selection bias

Answer 16

Nonprobability Sampling

Question 17

• every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Answer 17

Simple Random Sampling

Question 18

3 type of Simple Random Sampling

Answer 18

A . Fishbowl Technique
B. Lottery Method
C. Sampling with the use of Table of Random Numbers

Question 19

 This is done by simply writing the names or numbers of all the members of the
population in small rolled pieces of paper which are later placed in a container.
 The researcher shakes the container thoroughly then draws n out of N pieces of
papers as desired for a sample.

Answer 19

Fishbowl Technique

Question 20

similar to a fishbowl, however usually done in a lottery

Answer 20

Lottery Method

Question 21

 If the population is large, a more practical procedure is the use of
 Table of Random Numbers which contains rows and columns or digits
randomly beginning at an arbitrary point in Random Numbers, closing your
eyes and haphazardly pointing at an entry in the Table.
 Then proceed in any direction, vertically, horizontally coded elements in the
population.

Answer 21

Sampling with the use of Table of Random Numbers

Question 22

 This method of sampling is done by taking every kth element in the population.
 It applies to a group of individuals arranged in a waiting line or in a methodical manner.
 For instance, the objective is to get the opinion of employees regarding employee management relations, a sample size n will be selected from the list of employees arranged alphabetically or according to age, experience, position or academic rank.
 By systematic Sampling, every kth employee from the listed order will be included in a sample.
 If N is known, k be can be calculated as:

• where N, the population size
  n, the sample size

Answer 22

Systematic Sampling

Question 23

 When the population can be partitioned into several strata (singular: stratum) or subgroups (example: gender, socio-economic status, educational attainment, section, year level, age group, by department, school affiliation, etc.)
 it may be wiser to employ the stratified technique to ensure a representative of each group in the sample.
 Random samples will be selected from each stratum.
 Selecting a sample with this technique is quite difficult and costly since it requires a
complete listing, called frame

Answer 23

Stratified Random Sampling

Question 24

2 kinds of stratified random sampling

Answer 24

1.Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling
2.Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling

Question 25

 When the population is grouped into more or less homogeneous classes, that is, different groups but with a relatively common characteristic, then each can be sampled independently by taking equal number of elements from each stratum. This method is called simple random sampling.

Answer 25

Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

Question 26

 In some cases, the characteristic of the population is such that the proportions of the subgroups are grossly equal. The researcher may wish to maintain these
characteristics in the sample with the use of stratified proportion technique.

Answer 26

Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling

Question 27

 This is sometimes referred to as an area sampling because it is usually applied on a
geographical basis.
 The population is grouped into cluster or small units, e. g. blocks or districts, in city or municipality.
 Area sampling usually requires larger samples of elementary units than those required in simple random sampling. It is not a common practice, however that every individual located in selected area is interviewed. Often additional sampling stages are introduced.

Answer 27

Cluster Sampling

Question 28

 This technique uses several stages or phases in getting the sample from the population.
 This method is an extension or a multiple application of the stratified random sampling technique.
 The number of stages depends on the number of population and the sample size needed in the survey.

Answer 28

Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling

Question 29

5 Random Sampling / Probability Sampling Techniques

Answer 29

Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling

Question 30

5 Non-random/Non-probability Sampling Techniques

Answer 30

Judgement or Purposive
Quota Sampling
Incidental Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling

Question 31

 This method is also referred as non-random or non-probability sampling.
 It plays a major role in the selection of a particular item and/or in making decisions in cases of incomplete responses or observation.
 This is usually based on a certain criteria laid down by the researcher of his adviser.

Answer 31

Judgement or Purposive

Question 32

 This is relatively quick and inexpensive method to operate since the choice of the number of persons or elements to be included in a sample is done at the researcher’s own convenience or preference and is not predetermined by some carefully operated randomizing plan

Answer 32

Quota Sampling

Question 33

 This design is applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available.
 The investigator simply takes the nearest individuals as subject of the study until it
reaches the desired size.
 In an interview, for instance, an interviewer can simply choose to ask those people around him or in a coffee shop where he is taking a break.

Answer 33

Incidental Sampling

Question 34

 This method has been widely used in television and radio programs to find out opinions of TV viewers and listeners regarding a controversial issue. While the issue is being discussed in a talk show, who will call their telephone operators.
 This method, of course, is bias against those without telephones in their houses.

Answer 34

Convenience Sampling

Question 35

 is usually done when there is a very small population size.
 In this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another
potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research.

Answer 35

Snowball Sampling

Question 36

6 TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Answer 36

Yes or No Type
Recognition Type
Completion Type
Coding Type
Subjective Type
Combination Type

Question 37

Items are answerable by “yes” or “no”

Answer 37

Yes or No Type

Question 38

Alternative responses are already provided, and the respondents simply choose among the given choices. It also contains close-ended questions.
Example: Educational qualifications: Elementary Graduate, High school Technical Graduate, etc

Answer 38

Recognition Type

Question 39

The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the necessary information. Questions are open-ended
Example: In order to pass my failing subjects, I will ____________ regularly.

Answer 39

Completion Type

Question 40

Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other pertinent data.
Entails knowledge of the statistics.
Example: On a scale of one (1) to ten (10), how will you rate the skills of your manager?

Answer 40

Coding Type

Question 41

The respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of concern.
Example: What can you say about teachers who are deeply committed to their work?

Answer 41

Subjective Type

Question 42

The questionnaire is a combination of two or more types of questions.

Answer 42

Combination Type

Question 43

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DATA-COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

Answer 43

1. Concise to elicit the needed data. Two to four pages and a maximum of 10 minutes in answering it.
   The desirable length of each question is less than 20 words.
2. Seeks information that cannot be obtained from other sources.
3. Questions are arranged in sequence, from simplest to complex.
4. Arranged according to the questions posed in the statement of the problem.
5. Valid and reliable.
6. Easily tabulated and interpreted

Question 44

2 Scales commonly used in an instrument

Answer 44

Likert scale
Semantic differential scale

Question 45

Commonly used which consists of several declarative statements that express a
viewpoint on a topic.
Example: Likert scale to measure attitudes towards Mathematics

Answer 45

Likert scale

Question 46

The respondents are asked to rate concepts in
Example: Description of the class president.

Answer 46

Semantic differential scale

Question 47

Steps in Developing a Survey Instrument

Answer 47

oUse clear language and explicit instructions
oTypesandnumberofquestionswilldependonthepurposeandthetypeofsurveyplanned
oTypes of items
oOpen-ended items
oMultiple-choice items
oYes/No items

Question 48

is a type of composite measure that is composed of several items that have a logical or empirical structure among them.
- make use of differences in intensity among the indicators of a variable.
For example
 when a question has the response choices of “always,” “sometimes,” “rarely,” and “never,”
this represents a scale because the answer choices are rank-ordered and have differences in intensity.
Another example would be
“strongly agree,” “agree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “disagree,” “strongly disagree.”

Answer 48

A scale

Question 49

4 commonly used scales in social science research and how they are constructed

Answer 49

1. LIKERT SCALE
2. BOGARDUS SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE
3. THURSTONE SCALE
4. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

Question 50

 one of the most commonly used scales in social science research
 They offer a simple rating system that is common to surveys of all kinds
 The scale is named for the psychologist who created it, Rensis Likert
 One common use of the Likert scale is a survey that asks respondents to offer their opinion on something by stating the level to which they agree or disagree.
 It often looks like this:
Strongly agree Agree; Neither agree nor disagree ; Disagree ; Strongly disagree

Answer 50

1. LIKERT SCALE

Question 51

 created by sociologist Emory S. Bogardus as a technique for measuring the willingness of people to participate in social relations with other kinds of people
 Quite simply, the scale invites people to state the degree to which they are accepting of other groups

Answer 51

2. BOGARDUS SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE

Question 52

 created by Louis Thurstone, is intended to develop a format for generating groups of indicators of a variable that have an empirical structure among them.
For example
if you were studying discrimination, you would create a list of items (10, for example) and then ask respondents to assign scores of 1 to 10 to each item. In essence, respondents are ranking the items in order of the weakest indicator of discrimination all the way to the strongest indicator

Answer 52

3. THURSTONE SCALE

Question 53

 The semantic differential scale asks respondents to answer a questionnaire and choose between two opposite positions, using qualifiers to bridge the gap between them.
For instance, suppose you wanted to get respondents’ opinions about a new comedy television show. You’d first decide what dimensions to measure and then find two opposite terms that represent those dimensions.
For example
“enjoyable” and “unenjoyable,” “funny” and “not funny,” “relatable” and “not
relatable.”

Answer 53

4. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE

Question 54

5 STEPS IN INSTRUMENT CONSTRUCTION

Answer 54

1.Content Validation
2. Face Validity
3. Pilot Testing
4. Final Administration
5. Evaluation of the test

Question 55

 Refers to the extent to which the items on a test are fairly representative of the entire domain the test seeks to measure.
 This entry discusses origins and definitions of content validation, methods of content validation, the role of content validity evidence in validity arguments, and unresolved issues in content validation (Salkind, 2010)

Answer 55

Content Validation

Question 56

 It refers to the degree to which an assessment or test subjectively appears to measure the variable or construct that it is supposed to measure.
 In other words, face validity is when an assessment or test appears to do what it claims to do.
In the example above, Lila claims that her test measures mathematical ability in college students. Since all of the participants who completed Lila’s test and the follow-up assessment agreed that the test appears to measure mathematical ability in college students, Lila’s test showed face validity
Shuttleworth,2009)

Answer 56

. Face Validity

Question 57

 A pilot study is a small feasibility study designed to test various aspects of the methods planned for a
larger, more rigorous, or confirmatory investigation (Arain, Campbell, Cooper, & Lancaster, 2010).
 The primary purpose of a pilot study is not to answer specific research questions but to prevent
researchers from launching a large-scale study without adequate knowledge of the methods proposed
 a pilot study is conducted to prevent the occurrence of a fatal flaw in a study that is costly in time and money (Polit & Beck, 2017).

Answer 57

Pilot Testing

Question 58

 Final Questionnaires can be administered by an interviewer or answered by the respondents
themselves (self-administered).
 Self-administered questionnaires can be mailed or given in person to the respondents.
 They are feasible in a literate population if the questions are short and simple.

Answer 58

Final Administration

Question 59

a. Reliability
i. Reliability analyses
 Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure.
 Psychologists consider 3 types of consistency
1. over time (test-retest reliability)
2. across items (internal consistency)
3. across different researchers (inter-rater reliability)
 The most widely used internal-consistency coefficient, using Cronbach’s Alpha formula,
to computed for the total instrument.
 It is used for the reliability of the Likert scale questionnaires after a pilot testing.
 The most widely used internal-consistency coefficient.
 Used for the reliability of the Likert scale questionnaires after a pilot testing.
 The range of the reliability coefficient is from 0 to 1.
 Rule of thumb for preferred levels of the coefficient:
For high stakes tests (e.g. college admissions), > 0.85. Some authors suggest this
figure should be above .90
For low stakes tests (e. g. classroom assessment) > 0.70. Some authors suggest this
figure should be above 0.80

Answer 59

Evaluation of the test

Question 60

refers to the consistency of a measure.

Answer 60

Reliability

Question 61

3 types of Reliability consistency

Answer 61

1. over time (test-retest reliability)
2. across items (internal consistency)
3. across different researchers (inter-rater reliability)

Question 62

3 types of Validity analyses

Answer 62

1st-CONTENT VALIDITY
2nd-CONCURRENT VALIDITY
3rd-CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Question 63

 Is the test fully representative of what it aims to measure?
 Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct.
 To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all
relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure.
 If some aspects are missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included), the
validity is threatened (Middleton, 2019)

Answer 63

CONTENT VALIDITY

Question 64

 Is the type of Criterion Validity. Do the results correspond to a different test of the same thing?
 Criterion validity evaluates how closely the results of your test correspond to the results of a
different test. The criterion is an external measurement of the same thing.
 It is usually an established or widely-used test that is already considered valid.
 The criterion validity:
 To evaluate criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results of
your measurement and the results of the criterion measurement.
 If there is a high correlation, this gives a good indication that your test is measuring
what it intends to measure (Middleton, 2019).

Answer 64

CONCURRENT VALIDITY

Question 65

 Does the test measure the concept that it’s intended to measure?
 Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of all aspects of the construct.
 To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all
relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure.
 If some aspects are missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are included)
the validity is threatened (Middleton, 2019).
Note:
 If the Cronbach’s Alpha value is less than 0.07, try to improve the reliability value, by checking the
“Item Total Statistics”.
 Check the last column (Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted) and Try to delete the item with highest
value. Analyze again!

Answer 65

CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Question 66

 A method measures the extent to which items in one form of a test share commonalities with one
another item-total correlation S 2−∑ q
Where:
Rtt = reliability coefficient of the whole test
n = number of items in the test
SDt = Standard deviation of the total scores of the test
= tabulating the proportion of persons who answered correctly (p) and persons
who did not answer correctly (q) each item

Answer 66

KUDER-RICHARDSON FORMULA 20 (KR 20)