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Physiology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

anatomy

A

the study of the structures of living organisms

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2
Q

physiology

A

the study of how living organisms function

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3
Q

homeostasis

A

the maintenance of the relatively constant internal environment

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4
Q

internal environment (2)

A
  1. extracellular fluid= interstitial fluid and plasma
  2. intracellular fluid= cytosol
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5
Q

components of a feedback system (3)

A

-receptor= monitors the value of a variable and sends info to control/integrating center

-control/integrating center= establishes set point and compares the incoming info to that set point

-effector= based on signals from the control/integrating center, changes in the activity of the effector can change the value of the variable

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6
Q

negative feedback

A

-when any deviation from the set point is made smaller (resisting the change)

-ex. regulation of blood pressure, body temperature, and blood sugar levels

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7
Q

positive feedback

A

-when a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater (much less common than negative feedback)
-ex. childbirth, opening on sodium channels associated with action potentials, platelet-plug formation during blood clotting

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8
Q

what are cells measured in?

A

micrometers (microns)

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9
Q

what size are most human cells?

A

10 to 15 micrometers

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10
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

defines the boundaries of the cell, controls interactions with other cells, and controls movement of materials in and out of the cell

-appears as a pair of dark parallel lines

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11
Q

what % of lipids in the plasma membrane are phospholipids?

A

75%

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12
Q

what percent of lipids in the plasma membrane are cholesterol molecules?

A

20%

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13
Q

What makes up 5% of membrane lipids?

A

glycolipids

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14
Q

glycolipids

A

-help form glycocalyx ( a carb. coating on the surface of the cell with enables the body to distinguish its own healthy cells with other things)

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15
Q

what types of proteins are membrane proteins categorized as?

A

integral/transmembrane proteins or peripheral proteins

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16
Q

membrane proteins- receptors

A

-usually specific for one kind of chemical messenger
-chemical signals/messengers that cannot enter cell might bind to surface receptors

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17
Q

membrane proteins- enzymes

A

-some embedded proteins are enzymes that can catalyze certain reactions

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18
Q

membrane proteins- channel proteins

A

2 types: leak channels & gated channels

leak channels- always open
gated channels- may be ligand-gated, voltage gated, or mechanically gated

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19
Q

membrane proteins- carrier proteins

A

-transmembrane proteins that bind to glucose, electrolytes, and other solutes then transfer them to the other side of the membrane

-if they have to work against a concentration gradients, they’re called pump and they consume ATP

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20
Q

membrane proteins- cell-identity markers

A

-glycoproteins contribute to the glycocalyx, which enables the body to distinguish its own healthy cells from other things (diseased cells, invading organisms, etc.)

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21
Q

membrane proteins- cell-adhesion molecules

A

-allows cells to adhere to one another and to extracellular material

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22
Q

how permeable is the plasma membrane?

A

selectively permeable

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23
Q

selective permeability def.

A

something can act as both a barrier and a pathway between the cytosol and extracellular fluid

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24
Q

rates of diffusion thru a membrane depend on: (5)

A
  1. temperature
  2. molecular weight of the molecule
  3. steepness of the concentration gradient
  4. membrane surface area
  5. membrane permeability to that molecule
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25
Q

aquaporin

A

allows water to travel thru the plasma membrane

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26
Q

tonicity

A

the ability of a solution to affect the volume of fluid in a cell

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27
Q

what is facilitated diffusion?

A

-carrier-mediated transport of a solute thru a membrane down its concentration gradient
-no energy required!

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28
Q

what is active transport?

A

-a carrier protein moves a substance across a cell membrane against its concentration gradient
-energy (from ATP) is required!

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29
Q

how many of the calories that you use each day go towards the actions of the pump?

A

half

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30
Q

functions of the sodium-potassium pump

A
  1. regulation of cell volume- more ions are pumped out than in, so it prevents cellular swelling
  2. maintenance of a membrane potential- the inside of the cell is more negatively charged than the outside
  3. heat production- heat is released as ATP is used for the pump
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31
Q

vesicular transport

A

-large amounts of material are moved inside bubble-like vesicles made of membrane

-endocytosis
-exocytosis

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32
Q

endocytosis

A

-phagocytosis
-pinocytosis
-receptor mediated endocytosis

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33
Q

how does the nervous system regulate internal functions?

A
  1. processing information about internal and external environments
  2. processing that info and determining if a response is necessary
  3. sending commands, mostly to muscle and glandular tissue, to carry out the responses
34
Q

functional class of neurons

A

-sensory neurons
-interneurons
-motor neurons

35
Q

peripheral nervous system divisions are called…?

A
  1. sensory division/afferent division
  2. motor division/efferent division
36
Q

3 fundamental physiological properties of neurons/nerve cells

A
  1. excitability- will respond to environmental changes; neurons are extremely excitable
  2. conductivity- can produce and conduct electrical signals
  3. secretion- when electrical signals reach the ends of neurons, neurotransmitters are released to stimulate adjacent neurons (or other types of cells)
37
Q

components of a motor neuron

A

-soma (cell body)
-dendrites
-axon
-axon hillock
-myelin sheath
-node of Ranvier
-internodes
-axon terminals

38
Q

myelin sheath

A

a spiral layer of insulation around a nerve fiber

-formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and by Schwann cells in the PNS

39
Q

gaps in single axon

A

Ranvier
-each area covered in myelin is called an internode

40
Q

what does conduction speed of nerve fibers depend on?

A
  1. diameter of the fiber
  2. presence or absence of myelinated
41
Q

electrical potential

A

the difference in the concentration of charged particles between two points. measured as voltage

42
Q

electrical current

A

the flow of charged particles from one point to another

43
Q

what are things that have electrical potential are described as…?

A

polarized (living cells are polarized)

44
Q

what is the charge difference across the plasma membrane of a cell at rest called?

A

resting membrane potential (RMP)

45
Q

what has the strongest impact on RMP + why???

A

K+ ions because the cell membrane is more permeable to K+ than any other ion

46
Q

what is the RMP of neurons

A

-70 mV (this means the inside of the cell is more negative)

47
Q

what does local potential do?

A

carry the signal from the dendrites and around the cell body

-local potential is a short-range change in voltage

48
Q

what does action potential do?

A

carry the signal along the axon

49
Q

what is depolarization?

A
  • a ligand binds to a receptor and allows Na+ into the cell. This cancels out some of the negative internal charge and makes the inside of the cell more positive
50
Q

4 characteristics of local potentials

A
  1. local potentials are graded
  2. local potentials are decremental
  3. local potentials are reversable
  4. local potentials can be either excitatory or inhibitory
51
Q

hyperpolarization

A

less likely that an action potential will occur

52
Q

action potential steps

A
  1. adds local potential and depolarizes membrane at that point
  2. local potential rises to threshold potential (abt -55 mV)
  3. membrane depolarizes
  4. voltage peaks at approx. +35 mV. membrane is now positive on inside and negative on outside
  5. action potential kicks in, and repolarization
  6. membrane voltage drops to 1 or 2 mV more negative than the original RMP, which produces a negative overshoot called hyperpolarization
  7. returns to the RMP
53
Q

refractory period

A

during an action potential, and for a short time afterward, it is impossible or more difficult to stimulate that region of a neuron to fire again
-2 phases: absolute and relative

54
Q

absolute refractory period

A

a new action potential cannot be triggered because Na+ channels become inactivated for a short time after they have closed

55
Q

relative refractory period

A

-lasts until the end of hyperpolarization

56
Q

unmyelinated fibers

A

-continuous conduction
-only travels in one direction

57
Q

myelinated fibers

A

-saltatory conduction
-voltage-gated Na+ channels are concentrated in the nodes of Ranvier, and Na+ couldn’t enter the cell where myelin is present anyway

58
Q

what is a synapse?

A

the area where two cells come together.

59
Q

synaptic connection types

A

-axodendritic synapse
-axosomatic synapse
-axoaxonic synapse

60
Q

neurotransmitter

A

chemical messenger type thingy

ex. acetylcholine, glycine, GABA, epinephrine, etc.

61
Q

synaptic transmission- excitatory cholinergic synapse

A
  1. the arrival of action potentials at the axon terminal opens voltage-gated calcium channels
  2. CA2+ enters the neuron and triggers exocytosis of the synaptic vesicles, and releases ACh

watch a video for the rest.

62
Q

how can neurotransmitters be removed from receptors in the synaptic cleft?

A
  1. neurotransmitter degradation- via enzyme activity
  2. reuptake- into the presynaptic neuron
  3. diffusion- out of the synaptic cleft
63
Q

neurotransmitter GABA synapse

A

binds to ligand-gated channels, called Cl- channels. Cl- enters the inside of the cells and makes it more negative. the neuron is then less likely to make action potentials, so threshold potential is not reached

64
Q

neural integration

A

-the ability of neurons to process, store and recall information and make decisions
-physiologically, it’s based on the postsynaptic potentials produced by neurotransmitters

65
Q

what is a reflex

A

-quick, involuntary stereotyped reactions of glands of muscles to stimulation
-reflexes involving skeletal muscle are called somatic reflexes

66
Q

steps of a somatic reflex

A

-somatic receptors sense an input
-afferent nerve fibers carry the sensory information from the receptors to the spinal cord
-the pathway moves through an integrating center, which consists of the interneurons of gray matter of the spinal cord. Sometimes these aren’t involved though.
-efferent nerve fibers carry motor impulses to the muscles
-effector muscles contract

67
Q

what is a muscle spindle?

A

-stretch receptors embedded in the muscles
-examples of proprioreceptors, which monitor position and movement
-consist of seven or eight modified muscle fibers enclosed in a fibrous capsule

68
Q

what do muscle spindles do?

A

inform the brain of muscle length and body movements. the brain then sends motor commands back to the muscle to control muscle tone, posture, and balance.

69
Q

stretch reflex?

A

describes what happens when a muscle is suddenly stretched. it contracts and increases tone to become more stiff.
-helps maintain posture
-often feed back to pairs or sets of antagonistic muscles.

70
Q

what is the autonomic nervous system?

A

a part of the motor nervous system that regulates the activities of glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscles

-an involuntary system
-responsible for visceral reflexes
-glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscles do not need input from ANS to function, but just to adjust activity

71
Q

what is most of autonomic function a result of?

A

more complicated neural processes in our brain

72
Q

ANS divisions

A

-sympathetic
-parasympathetic

73
Q

sympathetic associated with..?

A

-activity or fight or flight responses
-alertness heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory activity, glucose concentrations, and blood flow to muscle are increased
-digestive activity, urinary activity, and blood flow to the skin and digestive tract are decreased

74
Q

parasympathetic associated with…?

A

-times of calm or relaxation
-digestive and waste elimination activities are more prominent

75
Q

what is dual innervation?

A

most of the viscera (organs) receive nerve fibers from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
-in most cases, the two divisions have antagonistic effects on the same organs. in some cases (salivary glands) they are cooperative

76
Q

cholinergic receptors

A
  1. muscarinic
  2. nicotinic
77
Q

muscarinic receptors

A

-all cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and gland cells with cholinergic innervation have them
-binding of ACh to muscarinic receptors may have excitatory or inhibitory effects

78
Q

nicotinic receptors

A

found in all postganglionic cells in autonomic ganglia and in skeletal muscle fibers. the binding of ACh to a nicotinic receptor is always excitatory.

79
Q

adrenergic receptors

A
  1. alpha-adrenergic receptors
  2. beta-adrenergic receptors
80
Q

alpha-adrenergic receptors

A

-usually lead to excitatory effects
-ex. promotes labor contractions, stimulates piloerection, and causes vasoconstriction in blood vessels

81
Q

beta-adrenergic receptors

A

-usually lead to inhibitory effects
-ex. relaxes bronchioles and causes a relaxation of the digestive system.
-AN EXCEPTION is that is causes an increase in heart rate and force of contractions in the heart

Physiology (9 decks)

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