Forensic Psychology

Question 1

Lombroso

Answer 1

Atavistic form theory.
Conducted post mortems to study.
Argued that a criminal is a separate species.
Criminality is heritable.
People could be born criminal.
Criminality could be determined by the physical shape of the head and face.
Criminals had atavistic features (primitive)

Question 2

Examples of atavistic features.

Answer 2

Large jaw
High cheekbones
Insensibility to pain.

Question 3

Lombroso study

Answer 3

Examined features of 383 dead criminals and 3839 living ones. He said that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic features.

Question 4

Features of a murderer.

Answer 4

Bloodshot eyes and curly hair.

Question 5

Features of a sex offender.

Answer 5

Large lips and ears.

Question 6

Features of a female criminal

Answer 6

Short and dark hair.

Question 7

Strengths of Lombroso.

Answer 7

Very influential. Beginning of offender profiling.
He labelled prisons as criminal universities which links to reoffending rates.

Recent study in China put photos of 1856 men into artificial intelligence programme. Half of which were criminals.
Wrongly flagged innocent men as criminals 6% of the time, but correctly identified criminals 83%.

Question 8

Limitations of Lombroso.

Answer 8

Inaccurate, not everyone with atavistic features are criminals.
Goring (1913) used a non criminal control group and found no significant difference in physical features of criminals and non criminals.
Does not account for possible disfigurement.

Deterministic - assumes we cannot escape destiny.

Scientific racism - De Lisi (1912) said that many of the atavistic features ere specific to people of African descent.

Question 9

Biological explanations of offending behaviour

Answer 9

Atavistic form theory. Genetics and neural.

Question 10

Genetics in explaining offending behaviour.

Answer 10

Offending behaviour is inherited.
Twin and family studies are used to measure concordance rate.

Twin studies, adoption studies, candidate genes and diathesis stress model.

Question 11

Twin studies

Answer 11

Twin studies - Christiansen (1977) examined 3500 twin pairs in Denmark and identified the following concordance rates for criminal behaviour. MZ male = 35%, DZ male = 13%, MZ female = 21%, DZ female = 8%.
Shows that there is a genetic factor as MZ twins have a higher concordance rate and they share 100% DNA.
However, it does not account for nurture, therefore adoption studies can also be used.

Question 12

Adoption studies

Answer 12

Adoption studies - Crowe (1972), group of adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record (50% of adopted children also had a criminal record by the time they were 18) and a control group (only 5% with criminal record).
Shows that regardless of the environment, children are biologically predisposed to criminality.

Question 13

Candidate genes

Answer 13

Candidate genes - Brunner et al (1993), analysis on large family in Netherlands (number of which were responsible for various counts of anti social and criminal behaviour.
Males had a genetic condition with defective MAOA gene - causing abnormal levels of serotonin which leads to unregulated moods and possibly criminal behaviour.
Recent analysis of 800 Finnish offenders found low MAOA activity and low activity from CDH13 gene (controls impulsive behaviour). 5-10% of all severe violent crimes in Finland is attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 gene types.

Question 14

Diathesis stress model.

Answer 14

Vulnerability and interactions cause mental health issues. High vulnerability requires low stress and low vulnerability requires high stress.

Genetic and external factors could be responsible for criminality.
These factors could be: criminal activity, alcoholism, drug use, ACEs (adverse childhood experiences.

Question 15

Strengths of genetic explanations.

Answer 15

Supporting nature debate - provides a better understanding for genetic causes. However fails to consider external factors.

Question 16

Limitations of genetic explanations

Answer 16

Most of genetic research on criminal behaviour looks at a limited range of criminal behaviour, only looks at crimes involving violence. This is a limitation because there is lots of other crimes that genetics fails to explain (fraud, theft).
Further research is needed to establish a link between genes and non-violent crimes.

Excuse for criminal behaviour, suggests that people cannot escape crime. Stephen Mobely (murderer) tested for MAOA gene and therefore said he could have been ‘born criminal’ and is not responsible for his behaviour. Judge disagreed, so it was not used as a defence and he was executed in 2005.

Question 17

Strengths of diathesis stress model in explaining offending behaviour

Answer 17

Supporting research - Mednick et al (1984), 13000 Danish adoptees. Neither biological or adoptive parents are criminal = 13.5% adoptees criminal, either biological parents or adoptive parents criminal = 20% of adoptees, both adoptive and biological parents criminal = 24.5% adoptees.
Increases external validity

Question 18

Limitations of diathesis stress model in explaining offending behaviour.

Answer 18

Still only small number of people becoming criminal, 75% not criminal.

Question 19

Neural explanations for offending behaviour.

Answer 19

Differences in the brains of offenders and non-offenders.
Neurochemical - internal
Neurophysiological - external

Question 20

Neurochemical

Answer 20

Serotonin is associated with criminal behaviour, this is shown through cases looking at a defective MAOA gene causing criminal behaviour as it affects enzymes that break down serotonin.
An increase in dopamine can cause increase in certain behaviours such as aggression and impulsivity. This can be exaggerated in people who have deficits in their reward system as they do not gain pleasure from normal activities. The increase in excitement causes them to repeat behaviour.

Question 21

Strengths of neurochemical explanation

Answer 21

Scerbo and Raine (1993) - abnormally low levels of serotonin in 29 studies examining offending behaviour.

Cherek et al (2002) - investigating impulsivity and aggression in males with history of criminal behaviour. 1/2 given placebo, 1/2 given an SSRI antidepressant, after 21 days those experimental group showed significant decrease in impulsive responses and aggression.

Question 22

Limitations of neurochemical explanation

Answer 22

Issue of cause and effect, unable to know if low serotonin is causing criminal behaviour or criminal behaviour is causing low serotonin, as offenders are put in prison which could lead to depression.

Question 23

Neurophysiological

Answer 23

Amygdala - implicated in emotional behaviour. It has a widespread influence of brain functioning as it is neurally linked to other parts of the brain, such as the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and hypothalamus. Major role in how we assess and respond to environmental threats.
Amygdala dysfunction = proactive aggression (premediated, cold blooded), linked with reduced amygdala function.
Reactive aggression (spontaneous, angry), linked with increased amygdala function.

Frontal lobes - linked to self control and regulation of impulsive behaviour. Raine et al (1997) - 41 violent offenders compared activity of pre-frontal cortex to 41 non-criminals using PET scans. Offenders showed significantly less activity in pre-frontal lobe, suggesting less control over impulsive behaviour.

Question 24

Strengths of neurophysiological

Answer 24

Amygdala:
Glenn et al (2009) - 17 participants with varying degrees of psychopathy, fMRI scans while making judgements about dilemmas, association found between psychopathy and reduced amygdala activity.
However this research uses a small sample size and the dilemmas which the participants had to make judgements on lacked external validity.

Coccsro et al (2007) - people with intermittent explosive disorder showed high levels of amygdala activity when their viewed angry faces (using fMRI)

Frontal lobes:
Brower and Price (2001) - link between frontal lobe dysfunction and violent crime.

Kandel and Freed (1989) - frontal lobe damage and antisocial behaviour, tendency for such individuals to exhibit emotional instability and this is linked to impaired functioning in the frontal lobes

Question 25

Limitations of neurophysiology.

Answer 25

Research into neurophysiology is often correlational, so there is no clear way to show cause and effect. Structural abnormalities found my Raine could be a cause of offending behaviour or the result of an environmental factor.

Question 26

Psychological explanations for offending behaviour.

Answer 26

Eysenck, cognitive, differential association theory, psychodynamic theory.

Question 27

Eysencks theory of the criminal personality.

Answer 27

Analysing results of a personality questionnaire of 700 soldiers who were being treated for neurotic disorders (PTSD).
Personality measured using EPQ.
Found 2 dimensions: introversion-extraversion (reserved vs sociable) Extraverts have an underactive nervous system (low levels of arousal) so they constantly seek excitement and are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours, also do not learn easily and therefore less likely to learn from mistakes.
neuroticism-stability (high levels of anxiety vs controlled)
Neurotic people have high levels of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system (respond quickly to situations of threat), so they tend to be nervous and irrational meaning their behaviour can be unpredictable.
Later added 3rd dimension: psychoticism. These individuals are impulsive, impatient and aggressive.

Type of personality and activity of the nervous system which they inherit - these affect the extent to which one is affected by socialisation (occurs in childhood).
High E and N scores have nervous system that makes them difficult to condition. This means that they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses, so are more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity is presented. Offending behaviour is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification (impatient).

Question 28

Strengths of Eysencks personality theory

Answer 28

Practical application - underlying tendencies are detectable in childhood, may be possible to modify experiences of high risk individuals (interventions). Practical benefit in reducing criminal behaviour.

Supporting research - Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 prisoners’ scores on EPQ with 2422 controls. Prisoners recorded higher than average scores on E, N, P

Question 29

Limitations of Eysencks personality theory.

Answer 29

Reductionist - personality traits are unlikely to be all accounted for using only 3 dimensions and measured by a single number. Traits can also be easily changed depending on by who we interact with as well.

Inaccurate - unlikely that there is one criminal personality type. Digman’s Five Factor Model suggests that there is additional dimensions (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism and openness to experience)

Question 30

Cognitive explanations

Answer 30

Level of moral reasoning.
Cognitive distortions.

Question 31

Level of moral reasoning

Answer 31

Kohlberg. Sense of right and wrong development.
75 American boys between 10-16 to discuss three hypothetical moral dilemmas prompted by open ended questions. Reasoning was analysed and each boy was reinterviewed every 3 years over a 13 year period.

Based on this he proposed the stage theory of moral development, the older the person the higher the stage and the more equilibrated the form of moral understanding.
Pre-conventional - punishment orientation (rules are obeyed to avoid punishment) instrumental orientation/personal gain (rules are obeyed for personal gain)
Conventional - good boy/girl orientation (rules are obeyed for approval) maintenance of the social order (rules are obeyed to maintain social order)
Post-conventional - morality of contract and individual rights (rules are challenged if they infringe on others) morality of conscience (individuals have a personal set of ethical principles)

Moral dilemmas compared to group of violent and non-violent youths. Violent = significantly lower level of moral development even after controlling social background, etc.
Offenders more likely to be classed as pre-conventional (committing crimes for personal benefit, do not care about punishment or social order), whereas non-offenders progressed to conventional level and beyond.

Question 32

Strengths of level or moral reasoning

Answer 32

Supporting evidence - compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using Social Moral Reflection Measure Short Form (SMR-SF) containing 11 moral dilemma related questions, offender group showed less mature moral reasoning. Increases external validity.

Supporting research - assessing 330 male adolescent offenders aged 12-18 in Taiwan, offenders who showed more advanced reasoning were less likely to be involved in violent crimes (shows cultural variation)

Question 33

Limitations of moral reasoning

Answer 33

Study which formed the theory was conducted with only American boys for participants (unable to generalise) and dilemmas are subjective and not relevant to everyday life (lacks external validity)

Fails to consider type of offence, one study showed that people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes. Intelligence may be a more important factor in determining the likelihood of an individual committing a crime.

Moral thinking is not the same as moral behaviour. Moral dilemma technique may be a poor predictor of real life behaviour. Low external validity.

Question 34

Cognitive distortions

Answer 34

Irrational thinking.
Hostile attribution bias - when someone always thinks the worse and they may misread non-aggressive cues.
Schonenberg and Jusyte (2014) - presenting 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions, compared to non-aggressive matched control group. Violent = significantly more likely to perceive images as angry and hostile.
Roots of this behaviour can be seen in childhood, one study showed children a video clip of ‘ambiguous provocation’ (neutral situation). Children identified as aggressive before the study interpreted the situation as more hostile.

Minimalisation - when someone tries to down play their actions. Studies have suggested that sexual offenders are particularly prone to minimalisation. One study found that among 26 jailed rapist, 54% denied they had committed an offence (14/26). 13/26 minimised the harm they had caused.

Question 35

Strengths of cognitive distortions as an explanation

Answer 35

Useful applications - modifying criminal behaviour, CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking - given examples how to respond correctly to situations. Helps to reduce aggression and reoffending.

Question 36

Limitations of cognitive distortions as an explantion

Answer 36

Level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence. One study gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders and found that non-contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions (internet). Those who had a previous history of offending were also more likely to use distortions as a justification. Suggests they are not used in the same way by all offenders.

People are prone to cognitive distortions. One study shown that minimsalisation is used by everyone. It is natural to blame events on external sources. Cognitive distortions are not particularly deviant, so they cannot be used to explain why some people commit crimes and others don’t. Lacks validity.

Question 37

Differential association theory

Answer 37

Sutherland (1924).
1) Basics - learn values and attitudes for offending behaviour through our associations. Could also learn methods about how to commit crimes. Those who associate with people who have very negative attitudes towards crime will have different attitudes to those who associate with people who have more positive attitudes towards it.
2) scientific basis - scientific principles that could explain all types of offending. Being able to discriminate between people who become offenders and those who do not. If you live in a deviant environment = more likely to offend.
3) offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour through learning. Occurs most through interactions with people they spend the most time with. Possible to predict how likely it is that an individual will commit offences through frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant/non-deviant norms and values.
4) learning attitudes - offending occurs if we acquire more pro-crime than anti-crime attitudes.
5) learning techniques for committing offences.
6) socialisation in prison - offending may ‘breed’ in prison, this can also account for high reoffending rates.

Question 38

Strengths of differential association theory

Answer 38

Supporting research - Osbourne and West (1979) where the father is criminal, 40% of sons also had a criminal conviction, when the father was not criminal, only 13% of sons. Increases external validity. However unable to generalise to females.

Practical applications- interventions to prevent those at risk from committing crimes and reduce reoffending rates.

Question 39

Limitations of differential association theory

Answer 39

Operationalising concepts such as intensity of exposure and depth of pro-crime attitudes mat be difficult. Also reductionist - probably not this simple.

Contradicting research - Newburn - 40% of offences are committed by under 21s and mostly male. According to DAT offenders should be any age and not just one gender. Theory lacks accuracy.

Question 40

Psychodynamic approach

Answer 40

Blackburn’s inadequate superego.
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Question 41

Blackburn’s inadequate superego

Answer 41

If the superego is deficient or inadequate then offending behaviour is inevitable (deterministic).
Weak superego - absence of the same gender parent in the phallic stage, this means that the child cannot identify with them. Child has lack of understanding of the difference between right and wrong. Superego does not punish the child through feelings of guilt = criminal behaviour.
Deviant superego - child identifies with the same gender parent who has immoral standards of behaviours, so child internalises morals that are not acceptable. Will not associate guilt with showing criminal behaviours.
Overharsh superego - Normally, superego is forgiving, but overharsh superego will not be forgiving. This increases guilt for wrongdoing so unconsciously seeks opportunities where they will be reprimanded.

Question 42

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Answer 42

If a child fails to develop a continuous relationship with the mother during the critical period, they are more likely to experience negative effects on development (DADDI).

Based on 44 thieves study - 44 child thieves compared to 44 emotionally maladjusted children who committed no crimes. IQ tests and interviews with themselves and their mothers.
14/44 diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths, of these 12/14 experienced early, prolonged separation from mother. 0% of control group were affectionless psychopaths.

Question 43

Strengths of psychodynamic explanations

Answer 43

Supporting research for link between offending and superego - analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment. In all patients, disturbances of superego formation were diagnosed. Offenders experienced unconscious feelings for the need of self punishment (overharsh superego).

Question 44

Limitations of psychodynamic explanations

Answer 44

Contradicting evidence - 44 thieves study, on researcher found that maternal deprivation during childhood was not a reliable predictor of the likelihood of becoming a criminal in the future. Decreases validity - maternal deprivation mat be a reason for offending behaviour but not the only reason.

Gender bias - according to Freud’s psychodynamic approach, girls should be at greater risk of being criminals because they suffer from penis envy, so their superego has been internalised to a smaller extent compared to boys. However, statistical evidence does not support this.

Question 45

Offender profiling

Answer 45

A behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offenders.
Used typically for solving serious crimes, professional profilers aim to narrow down the list of suspects. Creating assumptions about an offender which can be deduced from careful scrutiny of a crime scene and evidence, making a hypothesis about an offender (age, background, occupation).

Methods include - top-down approach and bottom-up approach.

Question 46

Top-down approach

Answer 46

Originated in US - research carried out by FBI in 1970s, gathered data from interviews with 36 sexually motivated killers. Concluded that offenders can be categorised into organised or disorganised on the basis of the modus operandi (way of working).
Organised - evidence of planning, weapon and body hidden, attempts to clean up, monitoring media coverage.
victim targeted, high IQ, skilled occupation, socially competent.
married, possible children, high birth order.

Disorganised - spontaneous, weapon and body present, no interest in media coverage, crime scene reflects impulsivity.
victim selected at random.
average/low IQ, poor work history, socially immature.
Lives alone, lives/works close to crime scene, low birth order.

1) data assimilation - reviews evidence.
2) crime scene classification - decides whether crime is organised or disorganised.
3) crime reconstruction - hypothesis in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of victim and suspect.
4) profile generation - hypothesis relating to the offender.

Question 47

Strengths of top-down approach

Answer 47

Supporting research - analysis of data from 100 murderers in the US committed by a different serial killer, analysing co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings (use of restraint). Showed support for the organised offender type. However, the it does not support the existence of the disorganised type which is a key component.

Question 48

Limitations of the top-down approach.

Answer 48

Research showing it may not be useful - one study of offender profiling using police research group. Questionnaires gathered following results: 80% though profiling was useful, 14% thought it assisted in solving cases, 3% of the time they were actually able to identify the offender. Colin Stagg.

Reductionist - classification system is too simple. It is likely that crimes have both organised and disorganised features. It may be more useful to study the motives.

Limited use - only applies to sexually motivated murderers, most crimes do not involve this, so t may have limited use when profiling offenders. However more recently it has been applied to burglary, added impersonal and opportunistic categories, this has led to an 85% rise in solved cases in three US states.

Question 49

Bottom-up approach

Answer 49

British approach, more scientific and objective.
Use of statistical data on similar crimes that have been committed to make predictions about the characteristics of an offender. Analysis of evidence at the crime scene, according to this approach people are seen as being consistent in their behaviour.
Does not begin with fixed typologies, seen as too subjective.

Investigative psychology - analysis of crime scenes in order to establish patterns of behaviour that occur across crime scenes. Details of offender recorded on a statistical database. Details of new crimes are matched with this database, once solved more details of the offender can be added.
Interpersonal coherence - way that offender behaves at the scene, including the eat they interact with the victim (rapists).
Significance of time and place, may indicate where the offender lives and works.
Forensic awareness - individuals that have been subject to police interrogation before - more mindful. (rapists who cleaned fingerprints = history of burglaries).

Geographical profiling - Canter - information about location of crime to make inferences about likely home or operational base of offender. Spatial consistency. Allows to determine centre of gravity (after 5 or more crimes) ‘base’ in the middle. Canters circle theory - pattern of offending is likely to form a circle around their usual residence. Marauders and commuters.

Question 50

Strengths of bottom-up approach

Answer 50

Investigative psychology - Supporting evidence - analysis of 66 solved sexual assault cases, analyse co-occurrence of certain aspects (lack of reaction to the victim). Makes it easier to establish case linkage. Supports the basic principle that people are consistent in their behaviour.

geographical profiling - Supporting evidence - analysis of 120 serial murderers, able to identify characteristic traits of spatial consistency, such as presence of jeopardy surface and centre of gravity. Geographical information can be used to identify an offender.

practical applications - correct identification of offenders, survey of 48 police departments found that the advice provided by the profiler was judged to be useful in 83% of cases. However it led to the successful identification of the offender in only 3% of cases.

Question 51

Limitations of bottom-up approach

Answer 51

geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own - timing of offences is also important. Recording of crime is not always accurate - dark figure of crime.

Little practical value - as it only led to successful identification of offenders in 3% of cases.

Question 52

Dealing with offending behaviour.

Answer 52

Custodial sentences
Behaviour modification
Anger management
Restorative justice

Question 53

Custodial sentencing

Answer 53

Spending time in prison or another closed institution.

Aims: deterrence - general and individual, based of the behaviourist idea of conditioning through vicarious punishment,
Incapacitation - offender taken out of society to protect the public, depends on severity of offence,
Retribution - revenge, punishment should be proportionate to the crime, eye for an eye, sometimes prison is criticised as being an easy option,
Rehabilitation - prison is also to reform, people should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take they place back in society, prison should provide opportunities to develop skills, training and access to treatment programs.

Psychological effects: stress and depression - high suicide rates in prison, stress increases the risk of developing psychological disorders on release,
Institutionalisation - people are no longer able to function outside of prison.

Problem of recidivism - reoffending rates are high 63%, this is only 20% in Norway which focuses on rehabilitation.

Question 54

Strengths of custodial sentencing.

Answer 54

Provides opportunity for training and treatment - aim to rehabilitate , allowing prisoners to get employed after being released. Offenders who take part in education programmes are 43% more likely to reoffend.

43000 people in prison in England and Wales in 2022, highest Europe - removing high risk offenders from society.

Question 55

Limitations of custodial sentences.

Answer 55

Negative psychological effects - 2021 - 2022, 70 people killed themselves in prison (Bromley Briefings), suicide is 6x more likely in the prison population. Impacts on rehabilitation.

Short prison sentences - learning to become better offenders and acquiring criminal contacts in prison, less than 12 month sentence = 63% reoffending rate (Bromley Briefings). Community order is more effective - 56% reoffending.

Question 56

Behaviour modification

Answer 56

Behaviourist approach suggests that behaviour is learnt. Behaviour modification reinforces obedient behaviour and punishing disobedience.

Token economy- based on operant conditioning, desirable behaviour is rewarded with token and and bad behaviour results in tokens being withheld or removed as a punishment. Tokens are secondary reinforcers which can be exchanged for primary reinforcers (extra visits, cigarettes).

Operationalise target behaviours - objective and measurable and agreed with prison staff and inmates.
Scoring system- decide how much each behaviour is worth.
Train staff - standardise procedures so that all prison staff are rewarding the same behaviours in the same way.

Question 57

Strengths of behaviour modification

Answer 57

Supporting evidence - token economy system in a young offenders unit, observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to non token economy group.

Easy to implement - straightforward to set up and no need to specialist professionals to be involved like they would need to anger management. Also cost effective.

Question 58

Limitations of behaviour modification

Answer 58

May not be effective long term - little rehabilitative value, token economies are not implemented in the real world. It is also easy for prisoners to play along with the token economy system in order to access rewards, but this produces little change in their overall character.

Question 59

Anger management

Answer 59

Cognitive behaviour therapy - cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts. Behaviourism suggests that becoming angry is reinforced by the individuals feeling of control in that situation. Anger management programs teach people how to recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger.

Cognitive preparation - offender reflects in past experience, learns to identify those situations and understand if they interpret events irrationally.
Skills acquisition - range of techniques, positive self talk, training how to communicate ,ore effectively, relaxation training or meditation. Aim is to control emotions.
Application practice - opportunity to practice their skills within a carefully controlled environment, role play. Given positive reinforcement by therapist.

Progress made with young offenders, took part in nationally organised anger management programme. Increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and increased capacity to exercise self control.

Question 60

Strengths of anger management

Answer 60

Benefits may outlast those of behaviour modification - tries to tackle cause of offending, whereas behaviour modification only deals with surface behaviour. More likely to lead to permanent behaviour change.

Question 61

Limitations of anger management

Answer 61

Depends on individual factors - significant progress made in those with intense levels of anger before the programme. Offenders who were open to change and highly motivated also had positive outcomes. May only benefit certain offenders.

Expensive - require highly trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. Prisons may not have the resources. Change also takes time which adds to the expense. Unlikely to work in many prisons.

Question 62

Restorative justice

Answer 62

Emphasises the needs of the individual. More about reparation which focuses on the victim and the offender.

Trained mediator who supervises the meeting.
Non-courtroom setting.
Face to face meeting or via video link.
Victims explaining how the incident affected them.
Active rather than passive process.
Focus is on the positive outcomes.

Can occur pre-trial, alongside prison or instead of prison. Can also involve restitution - financial or repairing damage property.

Restorative Justice Council advocates for the use of restorative justice.

Question 63

Strengths of restorative justice

Answer 63

Positive outcomes - 85% of victims reported satisfaction, 78% would recommend it, only 2% said it made them feel worse.

Decrease in reoffending - meta analysis, face to face restorative justice schemes compared to custodial sentences. Restorative justice group were significantly less likely to reoffend. Reduction was larger in offenders convicted of violent crimes.

Question 64

Limitations of restorative justice

Answer 64

Abusing the system - must be taking part because they genuinely regret the hurt caused and want to make amends. May use it for avoiding punishment, playing down their faults.