Chapter 2: Differences in Health Status

Question 1

o

Factors that impact health and wellbeing

Answer 1

• Biological
• Sociocultural
• Environmental

Question 2

Biological factors

Answer 2

• Factors relating to the body that impact health and wellbeing and overall levels of health status
• E.g. genetics, body weight, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, blood glucose levels, age and birthweight

Question 3

Genetics

Biological

Answer 3

• Plays a role in determining HWB across the lifespan
• Predisposition to disease – diseases such as cancer and diabetes tend to run in families and ethnic groups
• Sex – some conditions are exclusive to either males/females (e.g. prostate cancer for males and breast cancer for females)
• Hormones – oestrogen in females reduce the risk of osteoporosis and testosterone in males increase the likelihood of risk-taking behaviours
• DNA mutations – can change genes, affecting the way the body works or develops

Question 4

Body weight

Biological

Answer 4

• Influenced by genetics as well as bodily functions
• Overweight/obesity – increases the risk of developing obesity related conditions such as CVD
• Hypertension – high body weight puts pressure on the heart to pump blood around the body
• Arthritis and osteoporosis – high body weight puts pressure on bones and joints
• Type 2 diabetes – high levels of fat can damage insulin receptors which can leave glucose trapped in the bloodstream

Question 5

Blood cholesterol

Biological

Answer 5

• Cholesterol is carried around the body via lipoproteins
  
  • Two types: low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL)
• High LDL levels produce a build-up of cholesterol in arteries, narrowing them and reducing blood flow to the heart
  
  • Associated with heart attack, stroke and coronary heart disease
• HDL carry cholesterol to the liver, removing it from the body
  
  • Reduces high blood cholesterol

NOTE: LDL = bad. H(DL) = healthy.

Question 6

Blood pressure

Biological

Answer 6

• Measurement of pressure of the blood in the artery
• BP rises and falls, depending on a number of factors (e.g. body position, exercise, sleep and emotional state)
• High BP puts stress on the heart to pump blood around the body which can lead to hypertension (increases the risk of heart failure)

Question 7

Blood glucose regulation

Biological

Answer 7

• Impaired glucose regulation (IGR) or pre-diabetes includes:
  
  • Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and impaired fasting glucose (IFG) – elevated glucose levels that are not high enough for the diagnosis of diabetes
• Those with IGR are likely to develop type 2 diabetes mellitus and CVD if lifestyle changes (e.g. exercise) are not implemented

Question 8

Birthweight

Biological

Answer 8

• The weight of a newborn measured immediately after birth
• Low-birthweight (< 2.5kg) may be due to premature birth or foetal growth restriction
• Low-birthweight increases the risk of conditions such as respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), bleeding in the brain, heart problems and eye conditions

Question 9

Age

Biological

Answer 9

• Ageing can deteriorate bodily systems due to cellular damage that occurs over time
• This can make individuals more susceptible to diseases including dementia, CVD, diabetes and hearing loss

Question 10

Sociocultural factors

Answer 10

• Aspects of society and the social environment that impact health and wellbeing and overall levels of health status
• Can often be out of an individual’s control

Question 11

Family (social networks)

Sociocultural

Answer 11

• Social disadvantages (e.g. single-parent families) during childhood can impact one’s health throughout their entire life
• Limitations on parental education and income can restrict their ability to model healthy behaviours for their children to adopt

Question 12

Peers and the community (social networks)

Sociocultural

Answer 12

• Peers and community provide support networks
  
  • Support can be emotional (encouragement), physical (financial), or informational (advice)
• Social networks can be positive or negative
  
  • Positive – more likely to exercise if friends do
  • Negative – more likely to smoke if friends do

Question 13

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Sociocultural

Answer 13

• An individual’s position in society determined by their income, education level, employment status and occupational type
• Sometimes referred to as social class

Question 14

Level of education

Sociocultural

Answer 14

• Education provides health status benefits to individuals
• High levels – higher income, better employment prospects, healthier lifestyle decisions
• Low levels – poorer mental HWB, increased reporting of disease

Question 15

Employment status

Sociocultural

Answer 15

• Employment – healthy behaviours, identity/purpose and social status
  
  • Steady income allows individuals to pursue health-promoting behaviours (e.g. purchasing a gym membership)
• Unemployment – economic and social disadvantage
  
  • Job insecurity increases levels of stress and anxiety
  • Limits healthy lifestyle choices, increasing the risk of tobacco, alcohol or drug use

Question 16

Overcrowding and homelessness ***

Sociocultural

Answer 16

• Housing is a human right that has an important influence on health outcomes
• Inadequate/unsanitary housing increases morbidity from infectious disease
• Hazards such as stairs, slippery floors, pools and balconies can increase the risk of injury and premature death
• Overcrowded living conditions can cause high rates of mental health issues as occupants are unable to find privacy

Question 17

Access to health information

Sociocultural

Answer 17

• Comprehensive and high-quality information about healthcare helps a population achieve optimal HWB
• Inability to access health information and healthcare services can be detrimental to health status (e.g. misdiagnosis of disease or a lack of understanding about disease prevention)

Question 18

Environmental factors

Answer 18

• The surroundings in which we live, work and play; the environment includes water and air, workplaces, roads, nature, schools, recreation settings and exposure to hazards
• E.g. climate change, infrastructure, housing, public transport, access to healthcare, geographic location

Question 19

Air, water and sanitation quality

Environmental

Answer 19

• Air can be contaminated by asbestos, mould, carbon monoxide and methane
  
  • Poor air quality = ↑ risk of respiratory diseases
  • Second-hand smoke = hazard, particularly in homes
• Water quality in Australia is higher than other countries
  
  • Australia’s water = ↑ quality, ↓ faecal/industrial pollution
  • Contaminated water = dehydration due to diarrhoea (fluid loss), gastro, typhoid fever and hepatitis
• Sanitation also contributes to water quality
  
  • High population density, sewage outfalls and factory pollution = ↓ sanitation and water quality

Question 20

Access to physical resources such as transport, recreation facilities and healthcare

Environmental

Answer 20

• Transport systems & infrastructure allows access to recreation facilities & healthcare which improves health status
  
  • Rural areas = ↑ rate of road injuries due to poor road conditions, wildlife and livestock presence
• Inaccessibility of recreation facilities is identified as a risk factor for chronic diseases
  
  • E.g. parks, walking/cycling tracks and sporting grounds
• Geographic location determines one’s level of access to essential services
  
  • Rural areas = basic healthcare (requires individuals to travel to major cities for specialised services)

Question 21

Workplace

Environmental

Answer 21

• Influences an individual’s risk of injury and illness
• Manual labour = physical strain/injury and ↑ risk of long-term work absence (+ stress for both the employee and employer)
• Outdoor work = ↑ exposure to UV rays and ↑ risk of skin cancer
• Transport jobs (drivers) = ↑ risk of road injury and trauma
• Exposure to paint, fumes and corrosive chemicals = contributes to morbidity and mortality in the workplace of individuals

Question 22

Climate change and natural disasters

Environmental

Answer 22

• Climate change = ↑ temperatures, sea levels, occurrence of natural disasters and vector borne diseases (e.g. malaria)
• Bushfires = loss of human & animal life, houses and infrastructure; limits goods and services available
• High UV levels = ↑ rate of skin cancer (true for Australia)

Question 23

Variations in health status of males and females

Answer 23

• Accumulation of body fat: males → trunk/abdomen (risk factor for CVD), females → bottom and legs
• Social standards: males are less likely to seek medical treatment and implement health-promoting behaviours
• Workplace: males are more likely to work in high risk, labour intensive and outdoor jobs

Question 24

Variations in health status of Indigenous populations

Answer 24

• Access to resources: many live in rural areas (↓ road quality and police presence = ↑ collisions, injuries)
• Social expectations: less likely to access healthcare (+ cultural beliefs against Western medicine)
• Education: ↓ literacy and ability to understand health promotion = ↑ risk of developing a range of conditions

Question 25

Variations in health status of high and low SES groups

Answer 25

• Body weight: low SES = ↑ obesity, ↓ access to nutritious food
• Education: high SES = ↑ health knowledge, ↓ likelihood of engaging in risky behaviours (e.g. smoking)
• Air quality: low SES = ↑ child exposure to passive smoke

Question 26

Variations in health status of Australians living within and outside major cities

Answer 26

• Natural disasters: rural = ↑ susceptibility to drought (affects employment, availability of food and provision of services)
• Income and employment: rural = ↓ employment and income levels (risk factor for food insecurity and poor quality housing)
• Body weight: the more remote an area is, the higher the proportion of overweight and obesity in the population