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Biomedicine Specialised Core Subjects > Nucleic Acids > Flashcards

Nucleic Acids Flashcards

1
Q

What is the monomer of a nucleic acid

A

Nucleotides

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2
Q

Are proteins usually acidic or basic

A

Basic

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3
Q

Are Nucleic acids acidic or basic

A

Acidic

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4
Q

What are the types of nucleic acids

A

DNA and RNA

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5
Q

What is the function of nucleic acid

A

To store genetic information and to retrieve genetic information

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6
Q

What are some modified nucleotides

A

ATP, NADH and cAMP

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7
Q

What makes up the sugar of a nucleotide

A

Phosphate and a pentose (furan)

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8
Q

Are nucleic acids negatively charged

A

yes

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9
Q

What is the difference between ribose and deoxyribose

A

Deoxyribose has a H in 2’ for deoxyribose and OH in 2’ for ribose

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10
Q

Do we have a furan in ribose

A

Yes

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11
Q

What carbon does the phosphate bind to

A

the 5’ and 3’ carbon

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12
Q

What are the shapes of nitrogenous bases

A

Pyramidine and purine

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13
Q

How many rings does pyramidine have

A

1

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14
Q

How many rings does purine have

A

2

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15
Q

What does the 1’ carbon bind to for pyramidine

A

The carbon 1 (N carbon)

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16
Q

What does the 1’ carbon bind to for purine

A

The NH carbon

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17
Q

What are the members of purines

A

A (adenine) and G (Guanine)

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18
Q

What are the members of pyramidine

A

C (Cytosine), Uracil and Thymine

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19
Q

What base is exclusive to DNA

A

Thymine

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20
Q

Are Nucleic acid bases hydrophobic or hydrophillic

A

Hydrophobic

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21
Q

What is resonant (in chemistry)

A

Electron ring causing partial double bond

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22
Q

What wavelength can Nucleotides absorb easily

A

260nm wavelength (UV light can be absorbed)

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23
Q

What is a nucleoside

A

Nucleotide with no phosphate

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24
Q

What is the nomenclature for nucleoside purines

A

add Osine

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25
Q

What is the suffix for for nucleoside pyrimidines

A

add Idine

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26
Q

What do you do for nucleotide purines

A

add ylate

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27
Q

What do you do for nucleotide pyramidines

A

idylate

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28
Q

What is deoxyribonucleotides

A

deoxyribonucleoside monophosphate

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29
Q

How are bases modified so transcription of Dna into RNA terminates

A

Through methylation

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30
Q

Are there modified nucleotides

A

yes

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31
Q

How are nucleotides joined

A

Phosphodiester bonds

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32
Q

What is the direction of the DNA

A

From the Phosphate end to the 3’ end

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33
Q

What is the backbone made of

A

Sugars and phosphates

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34
Q

What component of DNA is inherited from the parents

A

The bases

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35
Q

What is the difference between DNA and RNA in terms of structure

A

DNA is double helix, RNA is single helix

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36
Q

What makes DNA acidic

A

It is negatively charged

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37
Q

What does phosphate look like in DNA code

A

P with a circle

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38
Q

What is the primary structure of DNA

A

Sequence of bases from 5’ to 3’ end

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39
Q

what is the secondary structure

A

DNA involves 2 strands running in opposite directions (antiparallel)

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40
Q

Do the antiparallel DNA helixes have the same primary structure

A

No, they have complimentary structures

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41
Q

What is always equal in DNA bases

A

The sum of purines = sum of pyramidines

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42
Q

Are DNA in cells of the same specimen identical

A

yes

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43
Q

Does base composition change with age

A

NO

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44
Q

What did Franklin measure with X rays

A

DNA helix size and secondary structure

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45
Q

What is transformation

A

Bacteria changing their own DNA from the environment

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46
Q

What is DNA

A

The carrier of genetic information

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47
Q

How does DNA associate with each base

A

Hydrogen bonds

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48
Q

Why does the number of pyramidines = number of purines in DNA

A

Because of the complimentary nature of double helix structures

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49
Q

What does adenine bond with

A

Thymine

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50
Q

What does cytosine bond with

A

Guanine

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51
Q

How many hydrogen bonds are between A and T

A

2

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52
Q

How many hydrogen bonds are between C and G

A

3

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53
Q

Are other base pairings possible

A

Yes, but not as stable

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54
Q

Can purine purine bonds and pyramidine pyramidine bonds occur

A

No

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55
Q

How is the double helix stabilised

A

By the base pairs

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56
Q

Is DNA amphiphatic

A

Yes

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57
Q

Can DNA transcribe into RNA

A

Yes

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58
Q

What are viruses that infect bacteria

A

phages

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59
Q

What are viruses made of

A

50% proteins and 50% nucleic acids

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60
Q

Does virus use their own DNA

A

No, they use the host cell’s DNA

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61
Q

How was viruses not using their own DNA but using their own proteins proven

A

Trough radioisotopes of phosphorous (DNA) and Sulphur (proteins)

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62
Q

What is a turn under watson and crick’s model

A

Right handed (clockwise) helix with a major and minor groove

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63
Q

What does DNA look like on top

A

Sugars and phosphates on the edge and bases in the middle

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64
Q

Why do we need to have an even diameter DNA

A

Because it needs to be stable, and if it wasn’t even it would be unstable

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65
Q

What is the humn form of DNA

A

B form and Z form occasionally

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66
Q

What is a N-O bond

A

Glycosidic bond

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67
Q

How would we denature DNA

A

Splitting the strands into two

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68
Q

What happens if denatured dna renatures

A

Annealed

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69
Q

Can hybrid DNA form

A

Yes, but only partially

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70
Q

What is hybridisatation

A

When short DNA sequences or RNA bind to separate DNA sequences

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71
Q

Why are some genes so similar

A

Because some genes are essential to life

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72
Q

What happens on a macro scale when DNA denatures

A

Decreasing viscosity

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73
Q

What kind of DNA has higher absorbtion at 260nm UV light than the other

A

Denatured DNA

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74
Q

What happens when you denature DNA

A

A hyperchromic (absorbance) shift

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75
Q

What is the melting temperature

A

Where half of the DNA has denatured

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76
Q

What increases melting point

A

Long DNA with lots of Cytosenes and Guanines

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77
Q

What base pair usually gets replicated first

A

the A’s and T’s

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78
Q

What can stabilize the double helix and why

A

Cations because DNA is negatively charged due to the phosphates

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79
Q

Why does DNA denature at extreme PH’s

A

Becuase DNA is held with hydrogen bonds which protonise as acids and deprotonise as bases

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80
Q

What bonding force allows denaturing temperatureto be low

A

Hydrogen bonds

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81
Q

What is a pallindrome in DNA

A

Inverted repeats

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82
Q

What happens if there are self complimentary sequences

A

It can form H bonds with each other

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83
Q

How many molecules of nuclear DNA are there per cell

A

46

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84
Q

What does mitochondrial DNA look like

A

Circular

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85
Q

What can DNA do in terms of making stuff

A

Copy itself and transcribe RNA

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86
Q

What is involved in the elongation phase of DNA replication

A

Synthesizing and attatching the okazaki fragments to the lagging strand with DNA polymerase delta (5’ to 3’ on lagging strand so backwards)

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87
Q

What is the enzyme for polymerizing DNA

A

DNA polymerase

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88
Q

What is nucleophillic attack

A

Where the OH donates an electron to the phosphate

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89
Q

Why is magnesium important

A

Attracts phosphates and aspartines

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90
Q

What direction do we synthesize

A

5’ (PO4) to 3’ (OH)

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91
Q

Which polymerases the most important to replicate nuclear DNA

A

Alpha, delta and epsilon

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92
Q

How often do DNA make errors

A

1 in 1000000000

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93
Q

What happens after polymerization

A

3’ to 5’ proofreading

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94
Q

What makes the leading strand

A

DNA polymerase epsilon

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95
Q

Where are the RNA primers

A

at the end

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96
Q

What are the RNA primers for

A

to stop the polymerization)

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97
Q

What is the leading strand made of

A

Continuous strands

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98
Q

What is the lagging strand made of

A

Okazaki fragments (small little bits which continur into RNA primers sometimes

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99
Q

What synthesises the lagging strands

A

Delta

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100
Q

What does DNA ligase do

A

glue 2 okozaki fragments together

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101
Q

What does the primase do

A

Every okozaki fragment and end of the strands rna primers

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102
Q

What is the gyrase

A

Cuts the DNA into 2 and relieve contortional stress (prevents dna from overwinding)

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103
Q

What is the RPA protein

A

Kepps the DNA denatured

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104
Q

What is PCNA

A

Holds DNA polymerase delta and epsilon onto the template strands

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105
Q

How fast does replication go

A

200 nucleotides per second

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106
Q

How is nuclear DNA structured

A

Linearally

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107
Q

WHat do chromosomes have a role of

A

Faithful transmission and appropriate expression.

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108
Q

What is a combination of DNA an proteins

A

Chromatin

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109
Q

What do nuclear proteins do

A

Bind DNA to the nucleus

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110
Q

What are the centromeres

A

Constricted central region

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111
Q

What are the telomeres

A

The edges of the chromosomes

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112
Q

What is the shorter chromosome arm called

A

p arm

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113
Q

what is the longer chromosome arm called

A

q arm

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114
Q

What happens where there is two chromatids but one chromosome

A

There are 2 DNA molecules but one centromere

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115
Q

What happens most of the time in chromosomes

A

only one molecule of DNA

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116
Q

What numbers chromosomes

A

Size of the condensed chromosomes

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117
Q

What are the different centromere positons from closest to center to furtherst away

A

Metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric and telocentric

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118
Q

What type of chromosome is the most stable

A

Metacentric

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119
Q

What is the haploid numbers

A

the number of chromosomes from one parent

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120
Q

what is the haploid number for humans

A

23

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121
Q

What is C

A

the mass of each DNA molecule

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122
Q

How much does DNA weigh

A

3.5*10^-12 cells

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123
Q

What is a karyogram

A

Visual profile of all chromosomes

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124
Q

What is a homologous pairs

A

the pairs of identical chromosomes

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125
Q

What do the light and dark reigions show

A

AT and GC pairs

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126
Q

What is a giesma stain

A

Bind more effectively to A’s and T’s meaning that the pale reigions are C’s and G’s

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127
Q

What are the types of chromatin

A

Euchromatin and heterochromatin

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128
Q

What chromatin will be used more often

A

Euchromatin

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129
Q

What are the proteins in chromatin

A

Histones

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130
Q

What PH is histones

A

Basic

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131
Q

What are the types of histone proteins

A

H1 H2a H2b H3 and H4

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132
Q

How long are haploid genomes

A

2 m

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133
Q

What does DNA wrap around

A

an octoma of histome

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134
Q

What joins the octoma

A

the H1 protein

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135
Q

How many octom are there wrapping DNA

A

2

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136
Q

What does DNA do after it wraps around the 2 octomer

A

it bends around the scaffold protein

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137
Q

How many proteins are in the nucleosome octomer

A

2 H2a 2 H2b 2 H3 and 2 H4

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138
Q

What does the chromatosome

A

the H1 protein

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139
Q

What are genes

A

Functional units of DNA

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140
Q

where does RNA in the body come from

A

complement of one of the DNA strands

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141
Q

What percentage of the genes encode protein

A

5%

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142
Q

What happens when DNA turns into messenger RNA

A

transmission

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143
Q

What is the coding strand

A

the strand being converted into RNA, except the T’s become U’s

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144
Q

What does helicase do

A

It unzips the DNA by breaking H bonds

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145
Q

What phase does DNA replication occur in

A

S phase

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146
Q

Do we need to replicate histones while replicating DNA

A

yes

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147
Q

What protein is required to transport histodones to the replication fork

A

Chromatin assembly factor 1

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148
Q

During the replication of DNA, are all histones transported in DNA replication newly synthesized

A

no, only some are

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149
Q

How was this experimentally proven

A

Cells were first replicated using a heavy amino acid base, then when transferred to a light amino acid base and replicated again, the DNA of the cell was at mixed densities as seen with centrifugation

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150
Q

Why are there multiple origins of replication

A

Due to the DNA being too long for one origin of replication

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151
Q

What do the telomeres have a pattern of

A

TTAGGG

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152
Q

What elements are needed for a replicated chromosome

A

Centromere, telomere and arms

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153
Q

What is the order of replication

A

Telomeres to Centromere

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154
Q

What is chromosome regulation regulated through

A

Control of location of initiation of replication (origin points), where the leading strand and lagging strand switch

155
Q

Are origins usually telomeres

A

No due to origins being rich in Adenine and thymine

156
Q

What is the ORC protein

A

A protein complex which recognises the location of DNA replication origins, binds to the origin and separates the strands

157
Q

Is DNA replication unidirectional in eukaryotic cells

A

no

158
Q

What is needed to initiate replication

A

For origins to be licenced which can only happen once per origin. This means that they are separated and ready for replication. This is the binding of the ORC and recruitment of the helicase

159
Q

How many proteins are in DNA helicase

A

6

160
Q

Why cannot proteins initiate twice

A

because the helicase hexomer denatures

161
Q

What can help the ORC find the origin

A

ATP

162
Q

What does CDC6 do

A

It combines with the ORC to be able to recruit the helicase only available in s phase

163
Q

What does CDT1 do

A

loop the DNA around and attach DNA to the helicase, finishing the licensing process

164
Q

What goes away after licensing occues

A

CDC6 and CDT1

165
Q

What is DNA polymerase Alpha used for

A

Initiation of DNA replication at the origin

166
Q

What happens at the end of replication

A

3’ overhand

167
Q

What does telomerase do

A

Add extra TTAGGG to the end of the DNA after the removal of primers

168
Q

What does Messenger RNA do

A

encode proteins

169
Q

What is the difference in the the backbone of RNA to DNA

A

RNA has OH meaning it has ribose, but DNA has deoxyribose

170
Q

Is RNA or DNA more stable

A

DNA

171
Q

What is RNA secondary structure like

A

It can wind back onto itself and can form unique structures because of the single helix

172
Q

Can RNA form unusual base pairs

A

Yes, U-U and G=U (GU is weak)

173
Q

What is a ribozyme

A

RNA that can catylyse a reaction

174
Q

What way does the RNA helix go

A

Clockwise

175
Q

What are the 2 RNA classes

A

Coding and noncoding

176
Q

What does coding RNA do

A

read and synthesize proteins, use code to make proteins

177
Q

What is the tRNAs for

A

Transfer amino acids to ribosome

177
Q

What is the rRNA for

A

structures the ribosomes

178
Q

What is lncRNA

A

long noncoding RNA

179
Q

What are most RNA’s used for

A

Ribosomes

180
Q

What happens when protein synthesis….

A

Trnas and mRNA associate with ribosomes

181
Q

What is the coding RNA

A

mRNA

182
Q

What is ribosomes made of by mass

A

50% rna and 50% rna

183
Q

What is S (Svedberg unit)

A

an indication of size due to sedimentation due to centrifuge

184
Q

What is the ribozyme

A

28S rna

185
Q

How many genes is rRNA synthesised from

A

2 genes with 4 different rRNAs

186
Q

What is from a separate gene

A

the 5S rRNA (short one)

187
Q

What is from the other gene

A

18, 5.8 and 28S RNA (longer 3)

188
Q

What is the tRNA strtucture

A

Amino acids binds to the 3’ end of RNA, the anticodon loop has 3 nucleotides. The anticodon and the 3’ end is specific to which amino acid bonds to it

189
Q

What is the codon on

A

mRNA

190
Q

What is a notable difference in nucleus between females and males

A

Holds one of the X chromosomes and covers it with lncRNA, genes are only inherited on one x chromosome

191
Q

What happened first in evolution

A

RNA

192
Q

What are regulatory regions important for

A

control of transcription of rna

193
Q

What happens if the reg region is close to the transcribe region

A

promotion

194
Q

What happens if the reg region is not close to the transcribe region

A

enhance

195
Q

What is an exon

A

directily transcribed into mRNA

196
Q

what is a promoter

A

it is at the 5’ end of the transcription region and synthesised rna

197
Q

What must be made before any proteins can be synthesised

A

RNA

198
Q

Can both strands be used as the template

A

no, only one known as the template strand, aka antisense, the other one is the sense gene or coding strand

199
Q

What happens when rna polymerises

A

the triphosphate becomes a phosphate and the OH becomes an OPO4

200
Q

Does RNA have directionality

A

yes, from 5’ to 3’

201
Q

Does initiation of transcription require a primer

A

no

202
Q

What happens when RNA transcribes

A

DNA unwinds, polymerase goes through and preceding DNA reqineds, going backwards relative to the RNA

203
Q

Where is the transcription start site

A

just after the promoter most of the time

204
Q

What does the promoter do

A

determine template, transcription direction and where the transcription will start

205
Q

Is the transcription termination site transcribed

A

yes, but it tells the primer to stop transcribing after

206
Q

What is the transcription start site denoted as

A

+1

207
Q

Is there a 0 for the transcription of RNA nucleotide numebrs

A

no, just goes to -1, upstream of the start site

208
Q

Is the coding strand the exact same as the strand of rna

A

no, there are u’s instead of t’s, troloololoolooloooloolol

209
Q

Hoe simple are rna polymerases

A

not simple at all, they have 10 common subunits and 7 unique subunits

210
Q

What does rna polymerase 2 have

A

CTD which han be phosphorylated or dephosphorylated

211
Q

What does the death cap mushroom do

A

stop transcription of rna

212
Q

WHat happens first in transcription

A

polymerase binds

213
Q

the start site forms a bubble, allowing the RNA polymerase to add rna, what process does this describe?

A

transcription

214
Q

What is a nascent RNA

A

RNA during transcription

215
Q

What polymerase transcribed genes have a core promoter

A

RNA polymerase II

216
Q

What elements are common

A

TFIIB recognistion, TATA box, initiator element, downstream core promoter element

217
Q

What is a y

A

c or t (pyramidines)

218
Q

what is an R

A

a or g (purines)

219
Q

What do tata boxes do

A

rapidly transcribe genes

220
Q

What does tbp and tata binding proteins do

A

bind to the tata box and bends dna

221
Q

What happens after the dna is bent in transcription

A

tfiif and polymerase binds to dna

222
Q

what adds on after

A

tfiie and tfiih which has helicase activity

223
Q

what does tfiih do

A

unwinds the dna

224
Q

What does the carboxyl terminal end do in polymerase ii

A

activates and move away from the promoter, takes away the transcription factor and polymerises rna

225
Q

What is the regulatory promotors function

A

bind transcription factors

226
Q

What are econic and intronic sequences

A

extrons are real rna bits, introns are leftovers

227
Q

What is the consensus sequence

A

tells when its cleavaged

228
Q

When does the RNA get rid ov exxons

A

when transcription occurs

229
Q

How does RNA capping work

A

RNA capping attaches 7-methylguanosine to the 5’ end to the rna. The 5’ cap protects rna from exonuclease. It forms a triphosphate bond

230
Q

What is the polyadenylaition for

A

protects RNA from decomposing on the 3’ end

231
Q

What does the AAUAAA sequence identify in rna

A

shows cleavage point 10-30 nucleotides ahead

232
Q

What is at the 5’ end of the intron

A

GU

233
Q

What is at the 3’ end of the intron

A

AG

234
Q

What is the branch point of the intron

A
235
Q

What does a splicosome do

A

splices exxons and introns and catylyzes the splicing reactions

236
Q

Why does the intron loop

A

5’ end of the g nucleotide and the 2’ of the branch point attatch through phosphate

237
Q

What is a spliceosome

A

Complex of snRNPs, ENA lariat formed

238
Q

How does splicing form

A

2’ OH of A forms covalent bond via nucleophillic attack with 5’P of intron G, then the intermeddiate bits are removed, then it loops

239
Q

Does splicing of RNA skip exons when it gets spliced together

A

yes

240
Q

Do all genes have the same splicing structure

A

no

241
Q

Are introns always small

A

no

242
Q

What are codons

A

code what an amino acid is

243
Q

What states a protein in RNA

A

3 digit combination of RNA

244
Q

Does genetic code overlap for proteins

A

no (DUH)

245
Q

What does the TRNA do

A

binds the aino acid

246
Q

What soes aminoacyl-trna synthetase

A

Alloes the TRNA to bind to the amino acid

247
Q

What are the binding sites for trna

A

E site (exit), P site,(peptide bonds) and A site (Entrance site)

248
Q

Is mrna in the large or small ribosomal unit

A

small

249
Q

What is an APE

A

A black person troloolooll or the order of the trna’s from entry to exit

250
Q

WHat attatches to the peptide site

A

the proteins

251
Q

What does elongation factor g do

A

accept the new trna, where the anticodon is the same as the codon for mrna

252
Q

What is the wobble position

A

the unusual base pairings for rna

253
Q

What wobbles

A

the GU bond

254
Q

What does not wobble at the 5’ end of the anticodon

A

A and c

255
Q

What initiates most proteins

A

methianine

256
Q

What dissociates when the met dinds the initiation part of RNA

A

the initiation factors dissociate

257
Q

What moves first in ribosomes

A

large subunit, then small subunit, then exit exits and then the new a enters

258
Q

What is a stop codons function

A

Markes as UAA UAG or UGA, the transfer rna has no amino acid attatched meaning that they all exit after no amino acid is found.

259
Q

How many neuromuscular junctions do muscle fibers have

A

1

260
Q

Does a nerve control one muscle fiber

A

no

261
Q

What does the number of junctions per neuron tell us about the muscle

A

lots = big and powerful, few = small and precice

262
Q

Where do motor neurons come from

A

straight out the spinal chord

263
Q

What controls muscle

A

primary motor cortex and corticospinal tract

264
Q

What is the upper motor neuron in

A

CNS

265
Q

How quick are the lower motor neurons

A

very

266
Q

What controls most subconscious actions

A

reflex

267
Q

how many synapses is a monosynaptic reflex

A

2 bc science …..

268
Q

What are the synapses

A

sensoryneuron -> motor -> neuromuscular junction

269
Q

What is the polysynaptic reflex for

A

it involves modular neurons as well, extra motor neurons

270
Q

What is the point for PSR (NOT PULSARS)

A

To make movement inhibitory

271
Q

What is the fertilised eggs

A

A zygote

272
Q

What changes the gene expression of cells

A

differentiation

273
Q

What establishes polarity

A

the egg

274
Q

What influences gene expression

A

cell contact, hormones, morphogens

275
Q

Where is the receptors of hormones

A

In the nuclear membrane

276
Q

What can polarity do

A

It can allow shapes of animals/plants to become distinct

277
Q

What is needed for different cell types

A

different transcription factors, meaning there are cell or tissue specific transcription factors

278
Q

What differentiates with cells to differentiate cell types

A

difering phenotype

279
Q

What is pluripotent

A

Most cells have the same nuclei

280
Q

do genes change

A

no

281
Q

What is special about B cells

A

they synthesise antibodies , meaning their dna is special

282
Q

What is beta actin

A

Cytoskeletal protein, needed for all cells

283
Q

What does tyrosine aminotransferase do

A

transfer tyrosine to amino acids

284
Q

Are genes expressed in all cells

A

no

285
Q

What is a sign of differentiation

A

rapid proliferation

286
Q

What happens when replicates end

A

3’ overhang at the ends for stability

287
Q

What makes DNA more active

A

increased accessibility

288
Q

What is less active euchromatin or heterochromatin

A

heterochromatin

289
Q

What causes gene expression

A

proteins

290
Q

What is DNase 1

A

Something that allows access to dna

291
Q

Does DNAse 1 change where it accesses dna throughout the creatures life

A

yes

292
Q

What can aceytylisation do to basic amino acids

A

This neutralises the basic amino acid, detacthing the dna from the histone octomer

293
Q

What does the HAT do

A

They add acetyl groups to the histone proteins, decreasing the affinity of histone proteins

294
Q

What does HDAC do

A

remove acetyl groups

295
Q

What makes euchromatin

A

hyperacetylated regions

296
Q

what makes heterochromatin

A

hypoacetylated regions

297
Q

Where do we modify the histone proteins

A

at the end

298
Q

What is methylation, phosphorylation and ubiquination

A

the other codes for the histone proteins

299
Q

What can effect from histone modification

A

Diseases, cancers and neurological disorders

300
Q

Do we maintain the location of dnase 1 intergenerationally

A

yes

301
Q

What is SWI/SNF

A

An ATP dependent complex, pushes the dna around nucleosomes to access the TATA box

302
Q
A
303
Q

What can we do with SWI/SNF

A

Allow transcription to happen

304
Q

What is methylation

A

Adding a methyl group to the base. This promotes against transcription. This is used with CPG islands, where C’s alternate with G’s

305
Q

Why does methyltion of c’s and g’s stop the DNA from opening

A

It recruits deacetylase protins, getting rid of acetyls to stop transcription to occur

306
Q

What is fragile x syndrome

A

There are lots of C’s and G’s in the DNA, stopping transcription of proteins

307
Q

What is epigenetics

A

Non-sequence changes to DNA, the histone access is differnet

308
Q

What is cis acting control

A

sequence on the dna

309
Q

What is an enhancer and repressor

A

promote or demote the quantity of transcription of that protein

310
Q

What is a promoter proximal element

A

promoters

311
Q

Are there trans-acting transcription factors

A

yes

312
Q

What is cooperative binding

A

TF’s bind to each other to bend the dna which can increase transcription speed

313
Q

What is a transcriptional activator

A

increases gene expression

313
Q

what is a transcriptional repressor

A

decreases gene expression

314
Q

What is a protein domain

A

Functional part of a protein which can fold to give a specific structure

315
Q

Is there only one transcription factor for activators/repressors

A

not always

316
Q

What does the cap and tail do to the messenger rna

A

It stops the messenger RNA from being degraded through signalling that it hasn’t been damaged

317
Q

Why do genes have introns

A

because you can make many proteins from one region

318
Q

What is the process of exporting rna

A

It is delayed until processed completely

319
Q

Do ribosomes move to MRNA

A

sort of

320
Q

What are the three ways of MRNA to go

A

directed transport to anchor proteins on cytoskeleton, random diffusion and degredation

321
Q

What charge is to the center of the cell for cytoskeleton

A

-ve

322
Q

What is dyesin for

A

moving to the center

323
Q

what is kinesin for

A

moving away from the center of the cell

324
Q

What causes development of humans anterior and posterior

A

protein polarity

325
Q

What is the median half life of mrna

A

10 hours

326
Q

What is the effect of a longer half life

A

you can translate more proteins

327
Q

What causes mrna to degrade

A

the shortening of the poly-a tail by nuclease

328
Q

What happens when the poly a tail less than 25 exists in mrna

A

decapping then there is rapid forward degredation or continued degredation

329
Q

What is eIF

A

Binds to the 5’ cap to prevent degredation

330
Q

what is the poly-a tail binding protein

A

it is a protein that bings to the a cap

331
Q

What is the effect pf having the cap and the polytail

A

it causes it to be ready for translation

332
Q

What causes the a tail to go

A

the deadenylase competing with the binding protein

333
Q

How many genes do we have for each thing

A

2

334
Q

Where does mitochondrial DNA come from

A

mother

335
Q

What is a genomes

A

complete composition of an organism

336
Q

what is identical within all humans

A

99.9% of all the genomes

337
Q

When is the human genome completed

A

2003

338
Q

What is the percentage of genes that are exons

A

1-2%

339
Q

What percentage is non coding DNA

A

92%

340
Q

What is over 50% of our genome

A

repeditive DNA

341
Q

What is the non coding DNA for

A

that make non coding RNA, centromeres, telomeres

342
Q

What decreases when the organism increases in complexity

A

fewer coding DNA

343
Q

What does not correlate with complexity

A

number of nucleotides and number of chromosomes

344
Q

What percentage of our genome is actually teanscribed

A

90%

345
Q

how many protein coding genes are there

A

20000

346
Q

What is the length of protein coding genes

A

53600

347
Q

What is the gene density

A

1 per 120000 bases

348
Q

What is relationship of proteins determined by

A

amino acid bases

349
Q

What is a homolog

A

gene related to antother gene by descent from ancestry

350
Q

What are paralogs

A

derived from a same species but different genes

351
Q

what are orthologs

A

different species but same gene

352
Q

What is highly conserved during evolution

A

histones

353
Q

What is a pseudogene

A

duplication of genes with one functioning and one not functioning

354
Q

how many pseudogenes are there

A

10000

355
Q

What caused mutations in the pseudogenes

A

it not being necessary to function

356
Q

what is the symbol of the pseudogene

A

trident

357
Q

what is the alpha globin gene on

A

16

358
Q

what is the beta gene on

A

11

359
Q

are there multiple genes being expressed for haemoglobin

A

yes

360
Q

what are microsatelites

A

1 to 6 base pair repetition

361
Q

What is replicative slippage

A

where the dna bends onto itself and skups a number during replication

362
Q

what is an example of a mistake with microsatelites

A

huntingtons and fragile x

363
Q

What is a minisatelite

A

big microsatelite

364
Q

What are the chromosome variations

A

Duplication of gene, deletion of genes, translocation (replace), inversion (switch), missing chromosome, extra chromosomes

365
Q

What is naked dna like

A

highly recombinogenic, it can switsch around easily

366
Q

What will allow survival of cells

A

one centromere + 2 telomeres

367
Q

What is the chromoseome abbreciations

A

letters for genes and dots for centromere

368
Q

What are the effects of deletionds

A

deletion of centromere, homozygous lethal deletions, heterozygous defective deletion, pseudominance recessive allele epressed, haploinsufficient gene, only one copy where 2 are needed

369
Q

what is a tandem duplication

A

duplication next to each other

370
Q

What is a wild type chromosome

A

natural chromosomee

371
Q

What causes dupliction of gene sequences

A

misalignment

372
Q

what is a paracentric inversion

A

inversion not including the centromere

373
Q

what is a pericentric inversion

A

inversion including the centromere

374
Q

what is formed when duplicationg inversion of genes

A

inversion loop

375
Q

what is the unusual structure of inversions whem duplicatefd

A

there having one with 2 centromeres and one with no centromeres

376
Q

What does the dicentric bridge do eventually

A

split in two

377
Q

What is a reciprical translocation

A

where genes sqitch between chromosomes

378
Q

what is a non recirprocal rare translocation

A

where one gene is transferred into another where the other is kept the same

379
Q

what does the transloction of the philadelphia chromosome do

A

lukemia, the chromosomes are swapped between chromosome 22 and chromoseome 9

380
Q

what does the ge e fusion do

A

promote a kinase

381
Q

what is a robertsonian transocation

A

2 acrocentric chromosomes, one on 14 and one of 21, where you get a long chromosome and a small chromosome

382
Q
A

Biomedicine Specialised Core Subjects (20 decks)

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