psych 241 final exam Flashcards
what is intergroup bias
Systematic tendency to perceive one’s own group (the ingroup) more favourably than a group to which one does not belong to (the outgroup).
how are groups defined
they are defined i many ways whether its ethnic, national, religious, gender university, sexual orientation
Cultural context influences which group membership people choose to focus on (e.g. nationality, ethnicity, gender, religious identity, political orientation, etc).
how can bias manifest itself
bias manifest itself in terms of attitude (prejudice), behavior (discrimination) or cognition stereotyping)
what is stereotypes
Generalized belief that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics (e.g., friendliness, intelligence, athleticism, etc.).
which tends to be fixed and oversimplified
what is prejudice
Negative attitudes or feelings toward a certain group and its individual members.
what is discrimination
action or behaviour in favor or against an individual based on their group membership.
E.g., willingness to vote, hire, or help member of group x vs. y.
how does an intergroup emerge in obvious or subtle forms
- obvious forms of bias may emerge in racist slur or derogatory sexist comments
- social norms have led to a decline in such expressions as they are seen as morally wrong
-However, bias is hurtful when people treat cultural differences as problematic, mock another for being different, or exclude others based on their identity.
-Bias may be more subtle in the form of aversive racism or implicit stereotyping or prejudice.
Measuring Explicit Bias: Modern Racism Scale
Over the past few years the government and the media have shown more respect to Blacks than they deserve.
It is easy to understand the anger of Black people in Canada. (R)
Blacks are getting too demanding in their push for equal rights.
Discrimination against Blacks is no longer a problem in Canada
what is aversive racism
A form of racism that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalise
Studies have shown the discrepancy in self-reported attitudes and behaviour.
what study cooperates with aversive racism
white participants were assessed for racial attitudes. the black or white candidates were evaluated with either strong, ambiguous or weak qualification the result was the level of explicit bias decreased over time however white participants did not discriminate against black relative to white candidates when the candidates’ qualifications were clearly strong or weak, but they did discriminate when the appropriate decision was more ambiguous. Theoretical and practical implications are considered
what is implicit bias
Stereotypes or prejudice considered unconscious or implicit when people express them without awareness and without being able to control their response
Implicit prejudice and stereotypes broadly represent mental association between a group and feelings or beliefs.
measuring implicit bias: implicit measure
Several tools used to measure implicit bias including the IAT (Implicit Association Task), evaluative priming, GNAT (Go/No-Go Association Task)
People may be implicitly biased even when their explicit responses are unbiased.
are we biased according to several tools
- if measured with modern racism scale, we are not biased
-if measured with IAT, yes we are biased
how does implicit bias predict behaviour
Over a hundred studies have shown that implicit attitudes and stereotypes predict a variety of behaviours
- Implicit attitudes predicts greater seating distance and more negative nonverbal behaviours.
- Implicit biases predict medical doctor’s recommendations, evaluations of a lawyer’s performance, and ratings of one’s work.
- Implicit attitudes predict job discrimination toward women and ethnic minorities in real world contexts.
- Research may need to be considered vis a vis the replication crisis
is there a debate to the extent of implicit bias representing one’s true attitude or cultural beliefs
yes, there is a debate to the extent to which these represent one’s true attitudes or cultural belief
does implicit bias predict behavior well
implicit bias predict behavior often better than self-report measures
what other measures are used to capture implicit biases
shooter bias, weapon/tool identification task
what is the shooter bias
it is a form of implicit racial bias which refers to the tendency among the police to shoot black civilians more often than white civilians
what is ERP and fMRI
these neuroscientific measures are used to study implicit biases
ERP and fMRI studies have shown that people perceive greater threats from outgroups than ingroup members.
Studies using fMRI show that people dehumanize certain outgroups
what is the stereotype content
The stereotypes we have of different groups can range along two dimensions of competence and warmth.
As a result, we have different emotional reactions to different types of groups.
the graph shows the x axis will be competence and the y axis is warmth
Pity:
- elderly
- disabled
Pride:
- student
- america
Disgust:
- homeless
- drug addict
Envy:
-rich
-professionals
what parts of the brain is activated with the different emotional reaction
the mPFC, part of the social brain and mentalizing network is activated except the disgust. theses activated the amygdala and insula, indicative of a negative, visceral response
what is sexism
gender stereotypes are distinct
They are not only descriptive, but also prescriptive (i.e. they tell people what they should do or be).
Both men and women across many cultures believe that men are competent and independent, while women are warm and expressive
what is the social role theory
Stereotypes come from roles and behaviors that societal pressures may impose on a particular group.
Stereotypes attached to groups are often a function of historical and culturally embedded social constraints.
what is magnified in the perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women
Small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women.
Gender differences tend to get exaggerated and generalized.
Perceived group differences on various traits were significantly greater than actual difference between sexes
how does influence of gender and social roles occur in three steps
- Combination of biological and social factors influence division of labour in the first place.
- People behave in ways that fit the roles they play.
- These behavioural differences provide a continual basis for social perception that men are dominant and women are domestic ‘by nature’.
what is gender backlash
Violation of gender stereotypes can result in social and economic backlash
Studies find that agentic female candidates less liked and less hired for managerial jobs that require interpersonal skills relative to identically agentic men.
When qualifications are ambiguous, women are seen as less competent than men but equally liked as men; however, when sufficiently qualified for a job, women are less liked than men.
what are the attitude toward homosexual
Attitudes toward homosexuals quite varied across history and geography
- Homosexuality removed from list of mental disorders only in 1973.
- Fundamentalist Christian attitudes correlated with prejudice toward homosexuals.
- Persons 40% less likely to be interviewed after indicating volunteer work for gay organization.
what is the bias against the physically and mentally handicapping
Bias against the physically and mentally handicapped long standing problem.
- Afflicted people labeled witches and killed; exterminated under the final solution; label used to justify executions in other places.
- Some attempts to improve the conditions of these groups, but still much variability in bias around the world.
what is the attitude toward obese individuals
Attitudes toward obese individuals also tend to be negative (especially for overweight women
Held as personally responsible, therefore often internalized.
- For example, obese perceived to be lazy and offered less support for university education.
- A person sitting beside an overweight woman is judged more negatively than a person sitting beside an average weight woman, even when strangers.
what is the source of intergroup bias
1.motivation: realistic conflict
2. motivation: identity, system justification, uncertainty reduction
3. cognition: social categorization, biased processing
4. individual difference
5. culture
what is the economic perspective to intergroup bias
- Competition for material resources can lead to intergroup bias.
- Scapegoating when dominant groups become frustrated and displace aggression onto relatively powerless, visible, and disliked outgroups.
- Poor economic conditions appear to be related to increased hatred toward outgroups. for example, economic conditions in the US between 1882-1930 correlated with lynchings of Blacks.
- Experiments reveal that economic threat does not lead to increased prejudice against all outgroups, but specifically those perceived as a threat to economic resources.
what is the realistic conflict theory
Competition for scarce resources between groups breeds prejudice, stereotypes, and hostility
what study cooperates with this theory
- Classic Robbers Cave study using 22 well adjusted, middle class, White fifth graders – divided into two groups (Eagles & Rattlers).
- Each independently engaged in activities that built ingroup unity.
- Then, groups were introduced for tournaments comprising various activities.
- Name calling, fights, theft, and other anti-social acts against other teams; self-glorifying comments about own team members.
- Simple non-competitive activities are not sufficient to reduce tension.
- However, superordinate goals reduced prejudice, name calling, and fostered friendships between the two teams.
what are the results for the realistics theory study
- Competition between two groups is sufficient for intergroup hostility and not necessarily differences in background, histories, etc.
- Superordinate goals that require groups to work together (not just putting them together) helps reduce hostility between them.
- Resource conflict doesn’t have to be real; it may be perceived or subjective.
- Realistic conflict may underlie various conflicts.
what is the motivational perspective
Humans live, work, play, and fight in groups.
A fundamental motive is needed to belong and affiliate.
-Serves the basic motive of self-protection.
- Also can generate readiness for “us vs. them” mentality.
what is the minimal group paradigm
This cooperates with motivational perspective
Paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary criteria and then examine how members of these ‘minimal groups’ behave toward each other
it is a method for investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between group
what is social identity theory (SIT)
Our self concept and self esteem are not only derived from our personal identity and accomplishments, but also from the status and accomplishments of groups to which we belong
the result of the social identity theory is people favour ingroups over outgroups
according to the social identity people still show bias even if
a) they are explicitly told they are classified in an arbitrary way (ex: coin toss )
b) they are never at a personal advantage regardless of how they divide the point
3) they never meet member of any of the group members
what has social identity theory showed me
studies have shown that by giving preference to ingroup members, people boost the group’s standing and elevate self-esteem
- People allowed to engage in ingroup favouritism showed higher self-esteem than those not allowed to engage in ingroup favouritism.
- Watching one’s team win a game led to increased self-esteem and more optimistic predictions about the future.
Some studies have also shown derogating outgroup members can boost self-esteem
what study correlates with social identity theory
For example, participants received positive or negative feedback on their abilities and were then asked to evaluate a Jewish or non-Jewish job candidate using her resume, photo, and a video of the interview.
what is system justification
In contrast to motive for ingroup favouritism, system justification theory argues for ideological motive to justify the status quo even if it negatively impacts one’s own group.
Evidence in different domains
- For example, women paid themselves on average 18% less than men did for the exact same quality work.
- People may vote for policies that go against their best interests.
- People may vote for policies that go against their best interests.
what is uncertainty reduction
We are motivated to know who we are and how we relate to others – we like to feel relatively certain about things in life.
Social identification one way to reduce uncertainty by offering prototypes and defining our place with respect to others.
finding uncertainty and intergroup
- people identify with groups more strongly under times of uncertainty
identification especially likely with groups that are normative, homogenous, intolerant of dissent, and governed by a more ideologically orthodox system.
what is the cognitive perspective
intergroup biases results from the way in which we process information about people
what is social categorization
The classification of people into groups on the basis of various attributes
For example, categorization of race and gender occurs at 100 and 150 milliseconds respectively.
Social categorization adaptive and helpful in processing complex world.
However, categorization is problematic because it can lead to overestimation of between group differences and underestimation within group differences
- Biologists and anthropologists find more genetic variation within race than between, yet race assumed to be biologically distinct.
- When placed in ‘minimal groups’ participants assume their beliefs are more similar to those of another ingroup member and more different from outgroup members.
when is stereotypes more likely
stereotypes especially likely when we are tired, cognitively loaded or low on mental energy
For example, people more likely to make stereotypical judgments when they were at a low point of their circadian rhythm (i.e. ‘morning people’ at night and ‘night people’ in the morning
what is the outgroup homogeneity effect
Social categorization can lead to outgroup homogeneity effect
what is the outgroup homogeneity effect
Tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups.
why does the outgroup homogeneity effect occur
- we often have more contact with ingroup members to notice divergent opinions
- we do not treat ingroup member as representatives of the whole; we think of it as idiosyncrasies of the individual
how does stereotypes influences how we communicate process information and interpret event
yes
- Participants rated drawings of ambiguous behaviour as more aggressive and less playful when performed by a Black child than White child.
- Although Ps told story of an Australian football player that included both stereotype consistent and inconsistent information only included stereotypic information by the time it was told to the 4th person.
what is self-fulfilling prophecies
Sometimes our stereotypes create a self-fulfilling prophecy by leading us to act toward outgroup members in ways that encourage the very behaviour we expect
For example, participants interviewing Black candidates tended to sit farther away, paused, and ended the session earlier than when the candidate was White.
- White applicants who were treated the same as the White or Black candidates from before behaved in similar ways to that observed in the previous study.
what is subtyping
Explaining away exceptions to a stereotype by creating a subcategory that differs from the group as a whole
tend to be more critical of exception to the rules than those who align with the stereotype
what is social dominance orientation SDO
Extent to which one sees hierarchy of groups and desires their ingroup to dominate over others
DO related to beliefs in social ideologies and policies that support group based hierarchy (e.g. civil rights, war, social programs,
what is right-wing authoritarianism (RWA)
Extent to which one values conventionalism, authoritarian aggression and submission
high RWAs shows especially strong prejudice toward deviant groups but not necessarily subordinate group
what is the motivation to control prejudice
Expressions of intergroup biases may be influenced by the extent to which one is motivated to control prejudice
- People may be externally motivated to control prejudice by not wanting to appear prejudiced in front of others
OR
- People may be internally motivated to control prejudice by not wanting to be prejudiced because they personally think it is wrong to do so
what is the intergroup bias in behavior (discrimination)
- people strongly differ in biased behavior
- IAT and personality measure have offered mixed result
what part of the Brian is related to the social brain
- DMPFC
- right temporal parietal junction
- precuneus posterior cingulate
- anterior temporal pole
- inferior frontal gyrus
- posterior superior temporal sulcus
what part of the brain is related to the self-referential
- MPFC
- PCC
what does neuroanatomy measures
it measures objective, stable difference in brain structure or function
EEG: resting states frequency
MRI: voxel based morphometry
can explain stable individual differences in personality and behavior
what does the Baumgartner studies shows about intergroup
Intergroup discrimination associated with increased grey matter in:
-Temporal Parietal Junction (TPJ)
-Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex (DMPFC
mediated by a degree of mentalizing
- empathy
TPJ and DMPFC
- shares rich, reciprocal connections
- functional connectivity in decision-making
-part of a mentalizing network
Better mentalizing/ToM = more egalitarian behaviour
what is third-party punishment
it is punishment of a first party (transgressor) which is administered not by a victim of the second party but rather by a third party not directly affected by the transgression. it has been argued that third party punishment are the essence of social norms
what is the white matter integrity
it distinguishes between impaired and unimpaired older adult decision-marker
White matter integrity at TPJ and connectivity between TPJ and DMPFC predict reduced intergroup bias
Non-biased mentalizing mediated both links
Individual differences in intergroup bias are explained by neuroanatomical differences in an interconnected mentalizing system
what are the cultural influences
Socialisation refers to a process by which people learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or group. intergroup bias is influenced by media and socialization
For example, the manifesto ‘Hutu ten commandments’ published in a popular paper warned of the dangers of Tutsis instigating the genocide.
However, after the genocide, radio programming that promoted intergroup cooperation and communication helped reduce bias.
media message can also influences self-conceptions : For example, women exposed to gender stereotypic TV commercials indicated less interest in being leaders and fewer career aspirations in a follow up task.
what does it entails to being a member of a stigmatized group
Members of stigmatised groups may suffer setbacks in health, wealth, employment prospects, and more. Members of such groups are often aware of the biases others may hold against their group.
how can biases have negative consequences through
- negative health outcomes
- attributional ambiguity
- stereotype threat
what is the negative health outcomes
Research from many parts of the world find that stigmatised groups tend to experience worse health outcomes than advantaged groups or the majority
Perceived discrimination negatively impacts mental and physical health. Subtle biases are also quite detrimental for health and well-being.
Exclusion and marginalisation in society leads to negative mental and physical health outcomes. Similar effects found among ethnic minorities, immigrants, sexual minorities, and the poor.
what is the attributional ambiguity
Stigmatised group members often face dilemma of how to attribute experiences they have
this may impact their experiences of both positive and negative feedback
- black student receiving negative or positive evaluations by a White student experienced change in self-esteem when they were told the White evaluator could not see them, but not when told they could see them.
- White students showed same change in self-esteem after positive and negative feedback irrespective of whether the other person could see them or not.
what are the advantages and disadvantages of attributional ambiguity
advantages: protect self esteem
disadvantages: Stigmatised group members may miss opportunities to improve themselves.
Stigmatised group members may feel less sense of control over their lives which may have consequences on health.
However, these individuals may receive such feedback better if it is clear that they are held to high standards and they have the ability to meet those standards.
what is stereotype threat
Stereotype threat is the fear of being evaluated by or confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group.
what is the impact of stereotypes threat
- Negatively impact performance in a domain of importance; and
- In the long run, lead members of stigmatized groups to disidentify with the domain.
what study cooperate with the stereotype threat
Black and White Stanford undergraduates administered difficult questions from the GRE.
Half told the test was diagnostic of intellectual ability and other half that it was simply a research task.
who is susceptible to the effect of stereotypes effect
Stereotype threat shown to impact performance across a number of target groups and domains
Stereotype threat effects do not require that the target believes the stereotypes – simple awareness can impact individuals.
- Women performed worse than men on a test they were told tends to reveal gender differences, but just as well as men when told the test reveals no gender differences.
- White students performed worse on a math test when reminded of Asians’ proficiency in math.
why does stereotypes threat impact performance
- by triggering physiological arousal
- by getting the individual to suppress thoughts about stereotypes, which can drain cognitive resources, and possibly backfire.
- impairs working memory
-Can facilitate negative thoughts and avoidance of failure as opposed to achieving success
how can the negative effect of stereotypes threat be alleviated
- For example, engaging in self affirmation shown to reduce both race and gender gap.
- By informing targets that the stereotype of their group does not apply in the particular context, negative effects are erased.
- Exposing target individuals to positive role models from their ingroup can help reduce negative effects of stereotype threat.
- Being reminded of other categories to which one belongs that are considered favourable in same domain can help reduce stereotype threat effects.
what are the challenges to reducing prejudices
- Values and beliefs are integral to psychological security.
- Prejudice often serves specific psychological functions for people.
- Established prejudiced views and stereotypes constitute self-perpetuating schemas.
- Some people are unaware of their prejudices and their influences.
what are the dual process view of prejudice
Process 1 (Experiential): Stereotypes and biased attitudes are brought to mind quickly and automatically through a reflexive or experiential process.
Process 2 (Rational): People employ reflective or cognitive processes to regulate or control the degree to which those thoughts and attitudes affect their behavior and judgment.
what limitation do people faces when they attempt to control their biases
- Cognitive control is impaired when judgments of others are made when a person is aroused or upset.
- Regulation of automatically activated thoughts can be difficult when people are pressed for time or distracted.
what is the negative effect of controlling biases
Exerting control in one context makes it more difficult to do so in another.
what is contact hypothesis
suggests that intergroup contact under appropriate conditions can effectively reduce prejudice between majority and minority group members.
ingredient for positive intergroup contact
- Equal status between groups in situation
- Intimate and varied contact that allows people to get acquainted
- Intergroup cooperation toward a superordinate goal
-Institutional support
why does optimal contact create positive change
- reducing anxiety
- fostering empathy
- reducing stereotypes (decategrozing)
what is aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior that is intended to harm another person or persons (or any living thing)
the harm can be physical or physiological
what does aggression require
Aggression requires an intention to harm. it can be a deliberate action or a deliberate failure to act
what is violence
Acts of aggression with more severe consequences
what are the two types of aggression
- affective aggression
- instrumental aggression
what is affective aggression
Harm-seeking done to another person that is elicited in response to some negative emotion
what is instrumental aggression
Harm-seeking done to another person that serves some other goal
ex: reward, momentary reward
what is the motivation to aggression based on the trust game
In the trust game, trust was being rewarded. also punishment feels rewarding when they share the money properly. the same feeling of rewarding of giving is the same as the feeling of afflicting punishment onto others
what is aggressive unconcious
Eros: Freud’s term for what he proposed is the human inborn instinct to seek pleasure and to create
Thantons: Freud’s term for what he proposed is the human inborn instinct to aggress and to destroy
what is Catharsis
it is relieving emotional tension
ex: punching a bag
what is Displacement
The unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind diverts emotions from their original source to a less threatening, dangerous, or unacceptable one to avoid experiencing anxiety. in other words when we divert our emotion to a less threatening source
what is jung shadow
the dark side of personality can be positive but is mostly negative because it is the hidden and unwanted part of ourselves.
what are the counter to psychodynamics in aggression
- When aggressive actions result in desired attention, specific rewards, or alleviating negative feelings, they become more likely.
- Aggressive actions can create dissonance, which leads to attitude shifts that justify actions.
- in the social learning theory, people learn by watching the actions of others. by watching the model, especially if the model received reward for their action, they are most likely to repeat the action
what is psychoanalytic response to our personality
we have a dark side in our personality and hidden animalistics personality
what is behaviorism to our personality
according to behaviorism we are no different than a pigeon
what is awareness
existence is a bummer however we are aware. This capability and struggle for meaning elevates and unites us
what is the existential bad faith
- it is an escape from the dilemma of existence. meaning we don’t worry about the meaning of life, we don’t try to think for ourselves, don’t examine your life just do what others tell you to do
- Living in bad faith: ignoring the existential questions and ignoring our moral imperative
how do we escape the angst of freedom
according to Erich Fromm and Theodor Adorno
1. impersonal identity
- Conform to a social ideal
-Removes the burden of choice
2. Authoritarianism
- Submission to external power
- Nietzsche’s herd mentality
3. destruction
- The source of angst is the world
- eliminate the world
what are the evolutionary basis for aggression
Male aggressors more likely to obtain resources and attract mates through higher status, thereby increasing odds of reproductive success.
Females from an evolutionary perspective protect offspring and therefore use indirect means.
Social animals can coordinate against other groups
Increased aggression found in step families.
what is the behavioural genetics basic for aggression
- E.g., identical twins show greater overlap in aggression and irritability than fraternal twins or siblings.
- However, twin studies reveal overlap in physical, but not relational aggression.
- Meta-analysis suggests that genetic factors account for an important portion of the variance in aggression.
what is the neurobiology of aggression
Research confirms physiological mechanisms involved in the detection of social threat, the experience of anger, and engaging in aggressive behavior.
what brain region is associated with detection of social threat and unjustified wrongdoing
Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)
This brain area is active when people detect actions and outcomes that interfere with their goals, including social threats.
what brain region is associated with anger and fear
Hypothalamus and amygdala
this region plays a role in people’s emotional experiences of fear and anger and prepare them for a fight-or-flight response.
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
what brain region is associated with impulse regulation
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and medial prefrontal cortex help regulate impulses, share connections with the limbic system, and contain serotonin receptors.
what is the association between testosterone and aggression
Development of primary and secondary male sex characteristics
About ~10 times higher concentration in men
Link with aggression is complex
Role in control and inhibition of aggression and sexuality
what is correlation of low 2D:4D to men
associated with more testosterone and to have more masculine traits
- good visual and spatial performance
- athletic achievement
- dominance and masculinity
- sensation seeking and psychoticism
what is the correlation with a higher 2D:4D ratio
- verbal fluency
- emotional problem
- neuroticism
what is the original version of the frustration-aggression hypothesis
Aggression is always preceded by frustration, and that frustration inevitably leads to aggression
what is the revised version of the frustration-aggression hypothesis
suggest that frustration produces an emotional readiness to aggress
what is the situational triggers for aggression
- context
-priming
-culture - physical threat
- psychological threat
what is priming aggressive cognition
Situational cues which prime hostile concepts and feelings can lead to aggression.
what is the weapon effect
The tendency for the presence of firearms to increase the likelihood of aggression, especially when people are frustrated
