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Biology > Adaptations for transport in animals > Flashcards

Adaptations for transport in animals Flashcards

1
Q

What is an open circulatory system?

A

Where blood bathes in tissues directly whilst held in a cavity called the haemocoel

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2
Q

What organisms has an open circulatory system and describe it

A

Insects, they have a dorsal tubed shaped heart that runs the length of their body.
They also lack respiratory gases in their blood so no respiratory pigment

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3
Q

How does oxygen diffuse into an insect?

A

Oxygen diffuses directly to the tissues from the tracheoles

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4
Q

What is a closed circulatory system?

A

Where blood moves around the body in blood vessels

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5
Q

What is single circulation?

A

Where blood passes through the heart once in its circuit around the body e.g. in fish

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6
Q

How does single circulation work in fish?

A

Ventricle of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills where diffusion takes place.
Oxygenated blood is carried to tissues from gills, deoxygenated blood then returns to atrium of heart. Circuit starts again

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7
Q

How does the circulatory system work in earthworms?

A

Closed single circulatory system.
5 pairs of pseudohearts pump blood from dorsal blood vessel to ventral blood vessel.
Dorsal blood moves forward and ventral blood moves back.
PG 188

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8
Q

What is a pseudoheart?

A

A thickened muscular blood vessel

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9
Q

What is double circulation?

A

Blood passes through the heart twice in its circuit around the body, once through the left side and once through the right side e.g. in mammals

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10
Q

What is the pigment in blood and what does it carry?

A

Pigment is haemoglobin and it carries oxygen.
NOT PRESENT IN ALL ORGANISMS e.g. insects do not have haemoglobin so their blood does not carry oxygen

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11
Q

What does the high metabolic rate of mammals mean in terms of oxygen delivery?

A

The higher metabolic rate the greater the need for rapid delivery of oxygen + glucose and removal of CO2 waste.

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12
Q

What does the right side of the heart do?

A

Pumps deoxygenated blood to the heart. (pulmonary circulation)

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13
Q

What does the left side of the heart do?

A

Pumps oxygenated blood to the tissues. (systemic circulation)

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14
Q

What are the tree types of blood vessels?

A

Arteries, veins and capillaries

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15
Q

What is the innermost layer of veins and arteries and its function

A

Innermost layer is the tunica intima, a single layer of endothelium which reduces friction so little resistance to blood flow

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16
Q

What is the middle layer of veins and arteries called and its function?

A

Middle layer is called tunica media, it is made from smooth muscle + elastic fibres.
Contraction of smooth muscle regulates blood flow and maintains blood pressure.

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17
Q

How is the tunic media different in veins and arteries?

A

It is thicker in arteries because the elastic fibres stretch to accommodate changes in blood flow and pressure as blood is pumped from the heart

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18
Q

What is the outer layer of veins and arteries called and its function?

A

Tunica externa, contains collagen fibres which resist overstretching.

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19
Q

Is an artery or a vein thicker and why?

A

An artery because it needs thick muscular walls to withstand the high pressure of blood being pumped away from the heart

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20
Q

What is the role of arteries

A

Carries blood away from the heart

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21
Q

What is the role of capillaries and what are they?

A

Capillaries form a network which penetrate tissues and organs, they have pores called fenestrate which are permeable to water and solutes so exchange of materials between blood and tissues takes place.

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22
Q

What is the role of the veins?

A

Brings deoxygenated blood back to the heart

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23
Q

What is the role of semi-lunar valves in veins?

A

They ensure blood flows in one direction only and prevent backflow

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24
Q

What can faulty functioning semi-lunar valves lead to?

A

Varicose veins and heart failure

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25
Q

How does blood in veins above the heart travel back to the heart?

A

Via gravity

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26
Q

Is blood flow in capillaries fast or slow and why?

A

Slow to allow materials to exchange

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27
Q

Draw and label a diagram of the heart

A

PG 191

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28
Q

What is myogenic contraction?

A

Contraction is within muscles cells, is not dependent on CNS or PNS.

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29
Q

What is heart rate modified by?

A

Nervous and hormonal stimulation

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30
Q

Where does deoxygenated blood enter the heart?

A

Deoxygenated blood from upper part of body via superior vena cava
Deoxygenated blood from lower part of body via inferior vena cava.

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31
Q

After deoxygenated blood enters heart where does it go?

A

To the right atrium

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32
Q

How does the bicuspid valve operate to stop blood flowing back into left atrium?

A

closes when pressure in the left ventricle is higher than in the left atrium to prevent backflow to blood.

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33
Q

After deoxygenated blood enters right atrium where does it go?

A

Passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle

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34
Q

After deoxygenated blood enters right ventricle where does it go?

A

Passes through semi-lunar valves to the left pulmonary artery to be transported to the lungs

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35
Q

Explain the flow of deoxygenated blood through the heart.

A

Enters from upper body via superior vena cava and lower body from inferior vena cava. Then deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium, it flows through the tricuspid valve to right ventricle. The tricuspid valve closes when pressure is higher in the ventricle to prevent back flow. Deoxygenated blood then passes through semi-lunar valves to the left pulmonary artery to the lungs.

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36
Q

What are the advantages of a closed circulation system?

A

Maintains high blood pressure in body
Rapid circulation of blood
Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood do not mix

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37
Q

After blood becomes oxygenated in the lungs where does it go to?

A

Travels back to the heart via the left pulmonary vein

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38
Q

How thick are capillaries?

A

One endothelium cell thick

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39
Q

What is systole?

A

A stage in the cardiac cycle where the heart contracts

40
Q

What is diastole?

A

A stage in the cardiac cycle where the heart relaxes

41
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

The sequence of events of one heartbeat

42
Q

How do you calculate cardiac output?

A

stroke volume X number of heartbeats per minute

43
Q

What happens at atrial systole?

A

Atrium walls contract and blood pressure in atria increases.
This pushes blood pass tricuspid/bicuspid valves and into the ventricles

44
Q

What happens at ventricular systole?

A

Ventricle walls contract, blood pressure increases.
This forces blood up past the semi-lunar valves to either aorta and around the body or left pulmonary artery to the lungs.

45
Q

What happens at diastole?

A

Ventricles relax, volume within it increases therefore pressure decreases.
Atria also relax which allows blood to enter via vena cava or left pulmonary vein.

46
Q

Describe the passage of blood through the left side of the heart

A

Left ventricle and atrium relax
Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from left pulmonary vein.
Once full the pressure forces open bicuspid valve, blood flows into left ventricle.
Left atrium contracts pushing the remaining blood into the ventricle (Atrial systole)
Left atrium relaxes again and ventricle contracts (ventricular systole) causing high pressure in ventricles which pushes blood past semi-lunar valves into aorta.

47
Q

What part of the heart is more muscular and why?

A

The ventricles because they have to send the blood further

48
Q

What ventricle is thicker and why?

A

The left ventricle has a thicker muscular wall because it has to pump blood all around the body.

49
Q

Draw a graph to explain the changes in blood pressure in the heart

A

PG 193

50
Q

Where are sino-atrial nodes located?

A

The wall of the right atrium

51
Q

What do sino-atrial nodes/SAN do?

A

They act as a pacemaker initiating an electric wave across the atria to generate contraction of the heart

52
Q

Describe the control of the heartbeat

A

An electrical wave arises at the SAN and spreads over both atria so they contract.
The electric wave passes to the AVN and to the ventricles, however the AVN produces a delay in impulse so the ventricles wont contract until the atria has finished contracting.
The AVN passes impulse down the nerves of the bundle of His which branches to apex of the heart.
The impulse is then transmitted to purkinje fibres in the ventricle walls which carries it up the muscles of the ventricle walls causing ventricles to contract pushing blood up to aorta/left pulmonary artery.

53
Q

What does the P wave show?

A

Shows the voltage change generated by the SAN associated with the contraction of atria.
P wave are smal

54
Q

What is happening between the start of the P wave and QRS?

A

Electrical impulse is spreading from atria to ventricles through AVN

55
Q

What does the QRS complex show?

A

Depolarisation and contraction of the ventricles.
Bigger than the P wave

56
Q

What does the T wave show?

A

Shows repolarisation of ventricle muscles.

57
Q

What is the isoelectric line?

A

The baseline of the trace and it is the line between the end of the T wave and start of the next P wave

58
Q

Why might a persons ECG be different to a normal one?

A

Atrial fibrillation so will lack a p wave due to rapid heart rate
A person who has had a heart attack may have a wide QRS
Variations in the size of the T wave could be because of insufficient blood being delivered to the heart due to atherosclerosis.

59
Q

How do you calculate heart rate?

A

60/length of cardiac cycle

60
Q

Where is blood pressure highest?

A

Aorta and large arteries

61
Q

What blood vessel has low blood pressure?

A

The veins

62
Q

What is the main function of blood cells?

A

To transport oxygen to from lungs to respiring tissues

63
Q

Describe the structure of the red blood cells and what is allows

A

They are biconcave discs so a large SA so more oxygen absorption
They are thinner in the middle so allows a shorter diffusion pathway.
They have no nucleus so there is more room for haemoglobin so more oxygen can be carried

64
Q

What are the two main types of leucocytes/ white blood cells?

A

Granulocytes which are phagocytic
Agranulocytes/lymphocytes which produce antibodies

65
Q

What is plasma?

A

A pale yellow liquid, 90% water.
It contains solutes

66
Q

What is cooperative binding?

A

The ease in which haemoglobin will bind to the 2nd and 3rd oxygen because once they attach they change the shape of the haemoglobin making it easier for the successive oxygen to bind.

67
Q

What is oxyhaemogoblin?

A

Haemoglobin which is bound to oxygen

68
Q

How many oxygen molecules can bind to haemoglobin and why?

A

4 oxygen molecules because haemoglobin contains 4 haem groups each which contains Fe2+ which the oxygen binds to.

69
Q

What does the first oxygen that binds to haemoglobin do?

A

It changes the shape of the haemoglobin molecule so that its easier for the 2nd haemoglobin to bind.
The 2nd oxygen molecule does the same thing

70
Q

What does cooperative binding allow?

A

Allows haemoglobin to pick up oxygen rapidly in the lungs.

71
Q

Which oxygen molecules change the shape of the haemoglobin?

A

Only the 1st and the 2nd.

72
Q

What is myoglobin.

A

A muscle protein, described as an oxygen store

73
Q

What does oxymyglobin do differently from oxyhaemoglobin?

A

It unloads its oxygen when the oxygen partial pressure is low, e.g. when exercising heavily.

74
Q

Where is oxygen partial pressure high and what happens here?

A

It is high in the lungs, here red blood cells load oxygen and haemoglobin becomes saturated with oxygen so it is called oxyhaemoglobin.
Co2 is unloaded and haemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2

75
Q

Where does haemoglobin go once saturated with oxygen?

A

Travels to respiring tissues where the partial pressure of oxygen is low because oxygen is being used in respiration.
The oxyhaemoglobin unloads its oxygen and dissociates

76
Q

How many globin chains does adult haemoglobin have?

A

2 alpha globin chains and 2 beta globin chains

77
Q

How many globin chains does foetal haemoglobin have?

A

2 alpha globin chains and 2 y-globin chains

78
Q

Describe the dissociation curve of foetal haemoglobin

A

Foetus haemoglobin absorbs haemoglobin from maternal blood.
The y-globin chain of foetal haemoglobin gives it a higher oxygen affinity than maternal haemoglobin at the same partial pressure
Oxygen will diffuse into foetus blood at any partial pressure and will always have a higher % saturation.
This shifts the dissociation curve to the left.

79
Q

Why would a low protein diet increase fluid retention in the tissues?

A

Low protein reduces plasma protein
Plasma proteins reduce the water potential in the blood
Water potential gradient is reduced
Less water is reabsorbed/ more water moves out of blood into the tissues because of the lower WP

80
Q

What is the difference of human haemoglobin and llama haemoglobin?

A

Dissociation curve far to the left of a humans.
Llama haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen at all partial pressures, the haemoglobin has adapted to high altitudes where there is a lower concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere

81
Q

What is the bohr effect?

A

The movement of an oxygen dissociation curve to the right at higher partial pressure of CO2, e.g. in the lungs, or respiring muscles.
Haemoglobin will have a low affinity for oxygen and will unload it readily.

82
Q

What happens to haemoglobin when the partial pressure of CO2 is high?

A

haemoglobin will have a lower affinity for oxygen so it is less efficient at loading oxygen and more efficient at unloading it.

83
Q

What three ways is carbon dioxide transported?

A

In solution within plasma
As hydrogen carbonate
Bound to haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin

84
Q

What is CO2 converted to within the red blood cells?

A

CO2 + H20 produces carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid then dissociates to H+ and hydrogen carbonate

85
Q

What is the chloride shift?

A

The diffusion of chloride ions from the plasma into the red blood cells

86
Q

How is CO2 converted in the red blood cells?

A

Carbonic anhydrase catalyses the combination of CO2 + H2O, producing carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3- ions.
HCO3- diffuses out of red blood cells into plasma.
Chloride ions diffuse into red blood cells from plasma to maintain electrochemical neutrality.
H+ causes oxyhaemoglobin to dissociate, H+ combines with haemoglobin to make haemoglobinic acid, HHb.
H+ ions are therefore removed and so Ph does not fall.
Oxygen diffuses out of red blood cell into tissues.

87
Q

Draw a diagram of the process of CO2 being converted inside a red blood cell.

A

PAGE 200

88
Q

What does the sequence of reactions in a red blood cell explain?

A

Why most CO2 is carried as hydrogen carbonate ions.
The bohr effect
And more respiration means more CO2 is present so more oxyhaemoglobin will dissociate, providing more oxygen to respiring cells.

89
Q

Where does exchange of blood and the body cells happen and what do they actually exchange?

A

The capillaries
Plasma solutes and oxygen moves from blood to cells.
waste products like CO2, urea etc move from cells to the blood

90
Q

How are capillaries adapted for exchange of materials?

A

Thin, permeable walls
Large SA for exchange of materials
Low blood pressure to allow time for minerals to exchange

91
Q

What is tissue fluid?

A

Plasma without the plasma proteins

92
Q

How is tissue fluid formed?

A

Fluid from plasma is forced through capillary walls as tissue fluid.

93
Q

What does tissue fluid do?

A

Bathes cells supplying them with solutes like amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, salts, hormones and oxygen.
Wastes like CO2 and urea made by the cells are removed by tissue fluid

94
Q

Describe the process of what happens at the arterial end of a capillary bed

A

Blood flows from the artery into the arteriole then into the capillaries, it is under high hydrostatic pressure due to the pumping of the heart, contraction of muscles in the artery cell wall and the smaller diameter of the capillaries. This hydrostatic pressure forces liquid out of the capillaries and into the space between surrounding cells.
The solutes in the liquid are used in cell metabolism, so their conc is higher in the blood which favours diffusion.

95
Q

Describe the process of what happens at the venule end of a capillary bed

A

The hydrostatic pressure of the blood is less than it was at the arterial end because its volume has been reduced by fluid loss.
Plasma proteins are more conc in the blood due to water loss, this makes WP negative, water will move by osmosis back into the capillaries down a WP gradient.
Tissue fluid surrounding the cells picks up wastes made by cells, they diffuse into the capillaries.
A small amount of fluid will drain into lymph capillaries of lymphatic system, most of this lymph fluid will return to the venous system through the thoracic duct which empties into the left subclavian vein above the heart.

96
Q

What is lymph fluid?

A

Fluid absorbed from between cells and into lymph capillaries, instead of capillaries.

Biology (26 decks)

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